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PAi 175

COLLEGE SERIES OF GREEK AUTHORS

EDITED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF

JOHN WILLIAMS WHITE and THOMAS D. SEYMOUR.

INTRODUCTION

TO THE

Language and Verse

OF

Homer

BY

THOMAS D. SEYMOUR

Hillhouse Professor of Greek in Yale College,

bostok college library

CHESTNUT RIEL, M ASS,

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Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1885, by
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PREFACE.

This Introduction is not designed to lay stress on Ho¬
meric language as contrasted with Homeric poetry, but is
intended to relieve the commentary of explanations of
dialectic forms and metrical peculiarities, and to call the
student’s attention to the most noteworthy characteristics
of Homeric style and syntax. In reading Homer, certain
questions, which cannot be avoided, as to the origin and rela¬
tion of forms, will attract less of the pupil’s attention and
demand less of the teacher’s time in the class-room if the
facts are stated in their proper connection ; the grouping of
these facts will make them more intelligible and more
easily remembered.

Some peculiarities of form have not been mentioned here,
since they occur so seldom that they may be treated in the
commentary just as conveniently; while for divers reasons
other anomalies which are no more frequent have been
discussed. Nor has the author planned to make the col¬
lection of examples complete ; the student should be en¬
couraged to gather illustrations for himself.

Most of this Introduction is of a nature to be read rather
than committed to memory. Much of it is unnecessary for
a beginner, but the author hopes that none of it is beyond
the comprehension and appreciation of the student. While
parts of it can be made fully useful only by a wise teacher,
most of it should be helpful to the undirected student.

Yale College, July, 1885.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

I. Homeric Style.

PAGE

§ 1. a. Translations . 1

b. Change of Subject . 7

c. Direct Discourse . 7

d. Principal Clauses . 8

f. Order of Words . 9

n. Epithets . 11

s. Synonymous Expressions .13

t. Epexegesis . 13

w. Stereotyped Expressions . . 14

§ 2. a. Pareehesis . 15

e. Comparisons . 16

1. Asyndeton . 18

o. Chiasmus . 19

p. Epanalepsis . 20

r. Litotes . 20

s. Periphrasis . 21

t. Zeugma . 21

u. Hysteron Proteron . 22

v. Later Change in Words. . .22

II. Homeric Syntax.

§ 3. b. Modes . 24

d. Cases . 25

f. Genitive Absolute . 26

g. Dative of Interest . 26

1. Particles . 28

m. Interrogative Particles ... .29

n. Parataxis . 30

q. Correlative Construction . .31

III. Homeric Dialect.

PAGE

§ 8. Crasis . 40

9. Hiatus . 40

10. Elision . 41

11. Apocope . 42

12. Consonants . 43

13. Metathesis . . . 45

14. The Digamma . 45

15. Special Case-Endings . 49

16. Eirst Declension . 50

17. Second Declension . . . 51

18. Third Declension . 52

19. Anomalous Forms . 55

20. Adjectives . 56

21. Patronymics . 57

22. Comparison of Adjectives . . .59

23. Numerals . 60

24. Pronouns . 62

25. Augment and Reduplication .65

26. Verb-Endings . 67

27. Subjunctive Mode . 70

28. Optative Mode . 70

29. Contract Verbs . 70

30. Future and First Aorist . 72

31. Perfect . 73

32. Middle Voice . 74

33. Passive Voice . 75

34. Verbs in -yui . 75

35. Second Aorist without Varia¬

ble Vowel . 77

36. Iterative Forms . 77

37. Prepositions . 78

38. Adverbs . 79

§ 4. Introductory

5. Vowels .

6. Contraction .

7 . Synizesis . . . .

33

IV. Homeric Verse.

..37 39. Heroic Hexameter

..39 40. Caesural Pauses ..

..39 41. Quantity .

Indexes, 95.

81

83

86

HOMERIC STYLE.

§ 1. a. Translations. Matthew Arnold enumerates
four essential characteristics of Homer’s poetry:1 “Homer
is rapid in his movement, Homer is plain in his words and
style, Homer is simple in his ideas, Homer is noble in
his manner. Cowper renders him ill because he is slow
in his movement and elaborate in his style ; Pope renders
him ill because he is artificial both in his style and in
his words ; Chapman renders him ill because he is fantastic
in his ideas ; Mr. Newman renders him ill because he is odd
in his words and ignoble in his manner.” Or in other words s
“ Between Cowper and Homer there is interposed the mist
of Cowper’s elaborate Miltonic manner, entirely alien to the
flowing rapidity of Homer ; between Pope and Homer there
is interposed the mist of Pope’s literary, artificial manner,
entirely alien to the plain naturalness of Homer’s manner ;
between Chapman and Homer there is interposed the mist
of the fancifulness of the Elizabethan age, entirely alien to
the plain directness of Plomer’s thought and feeling ; while
between Mr. Newman and Homer is interposed a cloud of
more than Egyptian thickness, — namely, a manner, in Mr.
Newman’s version eminently ignoble, while Homer’s manner
is eminently noble.”

Jf poets and masters have thus failed, it is evident that it
is no easy achievement to translate Homer well, to be at
the same time rapid, plain, simple, and noble, — ov 7ra)? a/xa

1 Essays in Criticism, Boston, 1865, pp. 284 ff., or Studies in Celtic Literature
and on Translating Homer , Macmillan, N.Y., 1883, pp. 138 ff.

2

HOMERIC STYLE.

[§ 1, «.

7 rdvra Svvrjaecu avrbs eXecrOcu. The beginner can at least be
simple ; he should aim to attain the other qualities also.

It is instructive to compare different translations of a
famous passage, © 555 ff. : —

d)? S’ or iv ovpavw aarpa (fraetvrjv dptcfn aeXrjvigv

cfyaiver dpirrperrea, ore r eifkero vrjveptos aWpp •

etc r e<fiavev rrdaai a/coirtal /cal n rpcooves d/cpoi

/cal vairat • ovpavodev 8' ap vireppa^rj aarrero ? aWrjp,

rcavra 8e r et8erat aarpa • <ye<y7]6e 8e re (bpeva rroLpugv'

roaaa piearjyv vebdv rjhe "BidvOoio podwv

Tpcocov /caiovrwv rrvpd (palvero T \166t rrpo.

'XJ'Xl ap ev ire8i(p rrvpd /caiero, Trap 8e e/caarw
eiaro rrevrp/covra aekai 7 rnpo? aWopuevoio.

17T7T0L 8e Kpl XevKov epeirropuevoL /cal oXvpas,
earaores reap' o^eacf)iv, evdpovov ’Hoi pbipivov.

This is translated by Chapman:1 —

1 The Iliads of Homer , Prince of Poets, never before in any language truly
translated, with a comment upon some of his chief places, done according to the
Greek by George Chapman. Of this translation, A-B, H-A were published in
1598. The first twelve books of the Iliad were published in 1610, and the
other twelve in 1611. The first half of the Odyssey was published in 1614, and
the rest in 1615. Chapman was about six years older than Shakespeare. The
reader will notice that the metre is the “common metre’5 of our hymn-books.

Chapman says in his “ Preface to the Reader ” “ Alwaies conceiving how
pedanticall and absurd an affectation it is, in the interpretation of any Author
(much more of Homer) to turn him word for word ; when (according to Horace
and other best lawgivers to translators) it is the part of every knowing and
judiciall interpreter, not to follow the number and order of the words but the
material things themselves, and sentences to weigh diligently ; and to clothe
and adorne them with words, and such a stile and form of oration as are most
apt for the language into which they are converted. If I have not turned
him in any place falsly (as all other his interpreters have in many, and most
of his chief e places;) if I have not left behind me any of his sentence, ele-
gancie, height, intention and invention . if in some few places ... I be somthing
paraphrasticall and faulty; is it justice in that poore fault (if they will needs
have it so) to drowne all the rest of my labour.”

Pope criticises Chapman’s translation as “ loose and rambling,” and for its
“frequent interpolations.” “Pie appears to have had a strong affectation of
extracting new meanings out of his author. . . . But that which is to be allowed
him, and which very much contributed to cover his defects, is a daring, fiery

j 1, «■]

HOMERIC STYLE.

3

“ Fires round about them shinde
As when about the silver Moone, when air is free from winde,

And stars shine cleare ; to whose sweete beames, high prospects,
and the brows

Of all steepe liils and pinnacles, thrust up themselves for showes ;
And even the lowly vallies joy, to glitter in their sight,

When the unmeasur’d firmament, bursts to disclose her light,

And all the signes in heaven are seene, that glad the shepheards
hart ;

So many fires disclosde their beames, made by the Trojan part,
Before the face of llion ; and her bright turrets show’d.

A thousand courts of guard kept fires ; and ever}7 guard allow’d
Fiftie stout men, by whom their horse, eate oates and hard white
corne,

And all did wilfully expect, the silver-throned morne.”

Pope’s translation 1 follows : —

“ And beaming fires illumin’d all the ground,

As when the moon, refulgent lamp of night !

O’er heaven’s clear azure spreads her sacred light,

When not a breath disturbs the deep serene,

spirit that animates his translation, which is something like what one might
imagine Homer himself would have writ before he arriv’d to years of discretion.”

1 Pope’s translation of the Iliad was published in 1715-20. It is said that
the great Bentley (see § 14 d R.) remarked to Pope “that it was a very
pretty poem but that he must not call it Homer.” It is in such simple narra¬
tive as quoted above that Pope’s style is worst ; it is best in descriptions of
action.

Pope says in his preface : “ That which in my opinion ought to be the
endeavour of any one who translates Homer, is above all things to keep alive
that spirit and fire which makes his chief character. In particular places,
where the sense can bear any doubt, to follow the strongest and most poetical,
as most agreeing with that character. To copy him in all the variations of
his style and the different modulations of his numbers. To preserve in the
more active or more descriptive parts, a warmth and elevation ; in the more
sedate or narrative, a plainness and solemnity ; in the speeches, a fulness and
perspicuity; in the sentences [ sententiae ], a shortness and gravity. Not to
neglect even the little figures and turns on the words, nor sometimes the very
cast of the periods. Neither to omit or confound any rites or customs of
antiquity. ... To consider him attentively in comparison with Virgil above
all the ancients, and with Milton above all the moderns.”

4

HOMERIC STYLE.

[§ 1, «•

And not a cloud o’ercasts the solemn scene ;

Around her throne the vivid planets roll,

And stars unnumber’d gild the glowing pole,

O’er the dark trees a yellow verdure shed,

And tip with silver every mountain’s head ;

Then shine the vales, the rocks in prospect rise,

A flood of glory bursts from all the skies :

The conscious swains, rejoicing in the sight,

Eye the blue vault and bless the useful light.

So many flames before proud Ilion blaze,

And lighten glimmering Xanthus with their rays :

The long reflections of the distant fires
Gleam on the walls, and tremble on the spires,

A thousand piles the dusky horrors gild,

And shoot a shady lustre o’er the field.

Full fifty guards each flaming pile attend,

Whose umber’d arms, by fits, thick flashes send,

Loud neigh the coursers o’er the heaps of corn,

And ardent warriors wait the rising morn.”

Cowper’s translation 1 follows : —

“ As when about the clear bright moon, the stars
Shine in full splendour, and the winds are hush’d,

The groves, the mountain-tops, the headland-heights
Stand all apparent, not a vapour streaks

1 Published in 1791.

Cowper says in his preface : “ My chief boast is that I have adhered closely
to the original, convinced that every departure from him would be punished
with the forfeiture of some grace or beauty for which I could offer no sub¬
stitute. ... It has been my point everywhere to be as little verbose as possible.
. . . In the affair of style, I have endeavoured neither to creep nor to bluster,
for no author is so likely to betray his translator into both these faults as
Homer, though himself never guilty of either. . . . The passages which will be
least noticed . . . are those which have cost me abundantly the most labour.
It is difficult to kill a sheep with dignity in a modern language, to flay and to
prepare it for the table, detailing every circumstance of the process. Difficult
also, without sinking below the level of poetry, to harness mules to a waggon,
particularizing every article of their furniture, straps, rings, staples, and even
the tying of the knots that kept all together. Homer, who writes always to
the eye, with all his sublimity and grandeur, has the minuteness of a Flemish
painter.”

§ 1, a.]

HOMERIC STYLE.

5

The boundless blue, but ether open’d wide
All glitters and the shepherd’s heart is cheer’d ;

So num’rous seem’d those fires between the stream
Of Xanthus, blazing, and the fleet of Greece,

In prospect all of Troy ; a thousand fires, "

Each watch’d by fifty warriors seated near.

The steeds beside the chariots stood, their corn
Chewing, and waiting till the golden thron’d
Aurora should restore the light of da} .”

Professor F. W. Newman’s translation 1 follows: —

“ And as around the shining Moon | the stars aloft in heaven
Glister with radiance distinct, | when all the sky is breathless,

And every lofty peak is shown, | and headland edge and forest,
And from behind the cloven sky | unfathom’d heaven gleameth ;
Nor hidden any star may be ; | and joyful is the shepherd ;

So many fires betwixt the streams | of Xanthos and the galleys,
Shone then in front of Ilion, | by hands of Troians kindled.

A thousand fires along the plain, | I say, that night were burning,
And close to every glaring blaze | sat fifty men in armour.

And by their chariots the steeds | rye and white barley munching,
Stood waiting till the Queen of Morn | fair-thron’d should rise
before them.”

Lord Derby’s translation 2 follows : —

“ As when in Heav’n, around the glitt’ring moon
The stars shine bright amid the breathless air ;

And ev’ry crag and ev’ry jutting peak

1 Published in 1856.

This has received perhaps undue distinction from the criticisms of Matthew
Arnold. The translator says: “To the metre which I have myself adopted,
I was brought by a series of argument and experiment, and was afterwards
gratified to find that I had exactly alighted on the modern Greek Epic metre.
It is also the metre of the American Yankee Doodle, which some have ignor¬
antly made an objection: as if the metre of the Frogs and Mice and of the
Margites, were not that of the Iliad. Of course no metre can be popular,
without being applicable to low treatment ; indeed without being liable to
degenerate into doggrel in unskilful hands.”

2 Published in 1865.

6

HOMERIC STYLE.

[§ 1, a.

Stands boldly forth, and ev’ry forest glade ;

Ev’n to the gates of Heav’n is open’d wide
The boundless sky ; shines each particular star
Distinct ; joy fills the gazing shepherd’s heart.

So bright, so thickly scatter’d o’er the plain,

Before the walls of Troy, between the ships
And Xanthus’ stream, the Trojan watchfires blaz’d.

A thousand fires burnt brightly ; and round each
Sat fifty warriors in the ruddy glare ;

With store of provender before them laid,

Barley and rye, the tether’d horses stood
Beside the cars, and waited for the morn.”

Bryant’s translation 1 follows : —

“ As when in heaven the stars look brightly forth
Round the clear-shining moon, while not a breeze
Stirs in the depths of air, and all the stars
Are seen, and gladness fills the shepherd’s heart,

So many fires in sight of Ilium blazed,

Lit by the sons of Troy, between the ships

And eddying Xanthus : on the plain there shone

A thousand ; fifty warriors by each fire

Sat in its light. Their steeds beside the cars —

Champing their oats and their white barley — stood,

And waited for the golden morn to rise.”

Tennyson translates : —

“As when in heaven the stars about the moon
Look beautiful, when all the winds are laid,

And every height comes out, and jutting peak
And valley, and the immeasurable heavens
Break open to their highest, and all the stars
Shine, and the shepherd gladdens in his heart :

So many a fire between the ships and stream
Of Xanthus blazed before the towers of Troy,

A thousand on the plain ; and close by each

1 Published in 1870.

§ 1, c.]

HOMERIC STYLE.

7

Sat fifty in the blaze of burning fire ;

And champing golden grain, the horses stood
Hard by their chariots, waiting for the dawn.”

Matthew Arnold translates the last verses in hexameters : —

4 4 So shone forth, in front of Troy, by the bed of the Xanthus,

Between that and the ships, the Trojans’ numerous fires.

In the plain there were kindled a thousand fires : by each one

There sat fifty men in the ruddy light of the fire :

By their chariots stood the steeds and champed the white barley

While their masters sat by the fire and waited for Morning.”

b. Change of Subject. Homer composed for quick-
minded hearers, who were ready to apprehend a change of
subject even when it was marked by no pronoun, as rj oi ay
aWoyevas 8at&a$ c fiepe /cal k yaXicrra | hgwdwv < pcXeecr/ce, /cal
erpeepe rvrOov iovra a 434 f. she bore for him the burning
torch and ( i.e . for) he loved her most of all the female ser¬
vants, and (i.e. for) she ivas his nurse when he was a child ;
e^ev irdCXai Wvvev "T 871 he (Meriones) long had been hold¬
ing while he (Teucer) ivas taking aim ; irpiv y’ ?)e /cara/crdyev
rje /car a/eprf ? | 'IXlov aiTreivrjv kXeecv KTacrOai re i ToXiras
O 557 before either we slay the Greeks or ‘they capture
lofty Ilios and the citizens are slain. Still more striking is
the change in (3ovXoiyr]v /ce . . reOvdyev rj rdbe . . epf opd-
acrOai, \ ^eivovs re crrv(peXit(oyevov^ hywds re yvvac/ca ? [ pvcrrd-
£ovras deuceX/ws /card hd/yara ucCXdi , | /cal olvov hiacpvcrcroyevov,
/cal alrov eSovras it 106 ff. I should rather die than see these
deeds , — guests struck , suitors abusing the maids , wine wasted ,
suitors devouring the food , where the poet was sure that his
hearers would not construe pvard^ovras and eSovras with
feAou?, but would supply yvrjargpa ? from the context.

c. Direct Discourse. Like the writers of Holy Scrip¬
ture, and as in the simple style of ballads and fairy tales and
the conversation of children and uneducated persons, the
Homeric poet avoids the use of indirect discourse ; he has no

8

HOMERIC STYLE.

[§ 1, d.

long passages in oratio obliqua , in the manner of the reported
speeches in Caesar’s Commentaries. He passes quickly from
indirect to direct discourse,1 as eirel irpo oi elrrogev rjgei? j
gpr clvtov /crelvetv g/jre gvdacrOai ci/coltlv, ( e/c y dp ' Opecrrao
tlctls ecrcreTcu /crX. a 37 ff. since we told him beforehand not to
slay the man himself and not to woo his wife , for from Orestes
shall (for should ) vengeance come , etc. Contrast 0 yap rfxde
doas 67 tl vrjas A ycuwv | . . teal Xlacrero irdvras ’A^cuou? |

. . vgiv gev deol 8oiev ’OXvgi ria 8c agar e^ovres \ e/cirepaai
TLpiagoio ttoXlv, ev 8’ ohca8 ’ i/cecrdat * | irai8a 8 ’ igol Xvaaire
cfitX 7]v ra 8 ’ diroiva 8eyecrdai, | cffogevoi A £09 viov, e/cr/ftoXov
’ ATroXXwva A 12 ff. with its paraphrase which uses indirect
discourse, eXdcov 0 iepevs ev^ero e/celvois gev rou? deovs 8ovvau
eXovras rrjv Tpotav avrovs crcodrjvaL, rgv 8e dvyarepa oi Xvcrac
8e£agevov<; airoiva /cal rov 6eov al8eadevra<^ ktX. in Plato Rep.

Ill 393 E.

d. Principal Clauses. Similar to this avoidance of
indirect discourse is the poet’s frequent and ready transition
from a subordinate to a principal clause, as 09 gey a ttclvtwv \

’ Apyelcov /cpareec /cal oi ireidovTai ’A yaioi A 78 f. who rules
with might over all the Argives and him (for whoni) the
Achaeans obey ; 09 gdXa 7roWa | 7 rXay%dr) . . 7 roXXa 8 ’ o y
iv TrovTcp rradev aXyea a 1 ff . who was driven on many wander¬
ings . . and he suffered, many woes upon the sea ; M evrcop 09
p 'Q8vcrr)o$ dgvgovos rjev eraipos | /cal oi (Mentor) loov ev vrjv-
crlv errerperrev (sc. Odysseus) oi/cov airavra (3 225 f., co eiri
7 roXXa goyrjcra, 8oaav 8e got vie 9 ’A ycuchv A 162.

e. Thus the poet deserts the participial for a finite construc¬
tion, as r/R/cropa 8 ’ ev 7re8lcp 18 e icelgevov * dgcfii K eraipoc | etaro
O 9 f. he saw Hector lying on the plain , while his comrades were

1 So in other early poets as utti SrjuTe TriirovOa, kotti \ s-r^vre Ka\T)/u, |
kotti fioi fiaXiara 0eAa> yeuiaOai | /j.aiv6\a Ov/LKf riva Stjvtc Ilei9u> | /xats ayriu is
aav <pi\6TaTa, t is <r d> \ Vaircp’ adiKyei; Sappho I 15 ff. thou didst ask me what I
suffer and why I call thee , . . whom dost thou desire that Persuasion should lead
to thy love, etc.

§ 1, h.]

HOMERIC STYLE.

9

seated around him (for kcli eraipov 9 gyevovs:) / gvyarrjpe^ rjye-
pedovro | ea6X dyopevovres, icaica Se (f>pe(rl /3vcr<ToS6yevov p 65 f.
(for ftvcro-o&opLevovTes planning in the depth of their hearts').
Of. yowd^oyat . . | kardyevai /cparepcos, gySi rpwnrdaOe (j)6-
(3ov$e O 665 f. I beseech you to stand stoutly , nor turn to flight ;
loiaiv re TLTverKogevoi \deaai r efiaWov F 80, where re . . re
mark the imperfect as correlative with the participle.

f. Order of Words. The simplicity of the Homeric
order of words is most clearly seen by comparing a passage
of Homer with a similar passage of a later Greek poet or of
Yergil. Many verses of the Iliad and Odyssey can be trans¬
lated into English, word for word as they stand, as p^oyeO'
€? (drjfirjv ieprjv nroXuv ’H erlcovos, | rrjv Se hienrpdOoyev re teal
ijyoyev evdaSe nrdvra. | . . e/c 5’ eXov ’A rpelhg ^pvcrgiSa /caWi-
irdpgov kt\. A 866 ff. When the order differs essentially
from the English there are generally rhetorical or poetical
reasons why the order is what it is ; no one should suppose
that the metre compelled the poet to adopt an arrangement
of words' that was not natural and did not please him. The
verse gave prominence not merely to the first word but often
to the word before the principal caesural pause (§ 40).

g. The thought of each Homeric verse is somewhat more
independent than is the case in later poetry. Other things
being equal, a word should be construed with words in the
same rather than in another verse. Rarely does a descriptive
adjective at the close of one verse agree directly with a noun
at the beginning of the next (as ^pegen^ov in r cucpp | yetXet
i^eerrabre^ M 51 f. or eCXero KaXgv | d^Lvrjv ev^aXfcov N 611).

h. A noun at the close of one verse often has an adjective
apparently in agreement with it at the beginning of the next
verse, but this adjective may be -regarded as in apposition
with the noun ; it frequently serves to form a closer connec¬
tion with a following amplifying clause, as ggvbv aethe 6ed . . |
ovXoyevr] v, r) gvpi ’A yaiois cCKye eOrjicev A 1 f., where the rela¬
tive clause explains ovXogivrjv : the wrath was mortal , deadly ,

10

HOMERIC STYLE.

[§ 1,

because it brought ten thousand woes upon the Achaeans.
So a few verses later, vovcrov dva arparov copcre /ca/cyv, oXe/covro
Be Xaoi A 10, the position of the adjective /ca/cyv is explained
by its connection with the thought of the following clause.
Cf. vyrrioL oi /car cl /3ovs 'TirepLovos yeXioio \ rjaOiov a 8, the
companions of Odysseus were fools in that they devoured the
cattle of Hyperion ; cpdrLs . . | ecrOXy, ^aipovcnv Be rraryp teal
irorvca pyryp f 80 ; vvv avre pcv vies ' A^cllcov | ev iraXdpys
cfropeovcn BucaaTroXoL oi re Oepucrras | 7 rpos A los elpvarai
A 237 ff., where BucaairoXoi is explained by the following
clause. Sometimes a word is reserved for the beginning of a
verse in order to mark a contrast with what follows, as avrdp
eirel By rectos errecravpevovs evoyaev ] T pcbas, dr dp A avacov
yevero ia%y re cf)6/3os re O 395 f., where the order of the
words sets T pcbas into an antithesis with A avacov, — dpcj)ore-
pas . . % elpas epaprrrev \ a/cacf), Be^irepy 8’ ap dir copcov aXvvro
to fa <f> 489 f. avrov thus often contrasts a man with his
companions or possessions, as diro pev cf>iXa eipara Bvaco \
avrov Be /cXaiovra 6oas errl vyas dcf>yaco B 261 ff. ; ey %os pev p
ecrrycre . . | avryv 8’ es Opovov elcrev a 127 ff.

i. The first words of successive verses occasionally carry
the burden of thought, as HVaO/co? . . | T cj>ivoov /3dXe . . | Aefta-
Byv . . | cbpov H 13 ff. Glaucus . . hit Iphinous . . son of Dexias
on the shoulder.

j. The subject of the sentence usually precedes its verb.
Almost every exception to this remark is found either at the
close of the verse, or less frequently before the principal
caesura (where the same metrical freedom was allowed as at
the end of the verse, § 41 a 3).

k. In order to give prominence to an important word, it is
sometimes placed before the relative word of the clause to
which it belongs, as cracorepos cos tee veyac A 32 ; icelSc Be pi
cos 7 repdcrece f 297. This is especially frequent when the sub¬
ordinate clause precedes the principal sentence, as"E /crcop B ’
cos —tcaids re irvXas . . i/cavev \ dp<\> apa pev . . deov /crX. Z 237.

§ b P-]

HOMERIC STYLE.

11

l. Adnominal genitives, like adjectives, generally precede
their noun, except at the close of the verse or before a caesu-
ral pause, but there are many exceptions to the rule in the
case of adjectives, principally perhaps where the adjective
and substantive are closely connected. A preposition often
stands between the adjective and noun, as ^pvcrep dva a/cf
7 rrpcp A 15, Ooas eVt vr/as A 12 ; jjpierepfp evl oc/c(p A 30 ; or
vija ? 67 tl 7 Xacfrvpa? T 119. The infinitive generally follows
the verb on which it depends.

m. When a noun is modified by two adjectives, it fre¬
quently is preceded by one and followed by the other, as 6ofj
irapa vrjl pLeXaivy A 300 ; rroXvv opi/3pov dOeafarov K 6. So
in English poetry “human face divine,” “purest ray serene,”
“old man eloquent.”

n. Epithets. Often three or more epithets are used with
one noun, as etXero 5’ aXtcipiov £7^09 d/ca^puevov o£ei yaXKp, \
fipoOv pueya arifiapov a 99 f. ; ov tl TrepLTrXrjOps Xcrjv rocrov,
dXX' dyaOy puev, | €v/3oto<; 617x77X09, olvoTrXpdys iroXvirvpo 9
o 405 f. (But in the first three books of the Iliad as many
as three adjectives are rarely found with one noun.) Often
two of the epithets begin a verse, as e’9 Opovov elaev aywr . . |
KaXov ScuSdXeov a 130 f. ; (poppuyyi Xiyelrj | /caXf) SaiSaXey
I 186 f. ; /caXa TreScXa | dpL/3p6cria % pvcreca e 44 f. ; e’9 OdXa-
piov /caT6/3rjcr€TO Krjdoevra | icehpivov vyjropocjiov XI 191 f.

o. As is seen from the foregoing examples, the poet does
not use kcll to connect epitheta ornantia.

p. These ornamental epithets frequently have reference to
the most marked natural characteristics of an object rather
than to a particular occasion. The ships are swift (Ooal')
even when they are drawn up on land (A 300 and passim ) ;
clothing is aiyaXoevra even when it is soiled (f 26) ; Aegis-
thus is called honorable , blameless ( dpuvpLcov , a 29) in the very
breath in which he is rebuked for wooing Agamemnon’s wife
and killing the king of men himself; Polyphemus lifts his
hands to the starry heaven (ex9 ovpavov darepoevra t 527) in

12

HOMERIC STYLE.

[§ 1, ?.

broad daylight. The sea is 7roXu<£\otcr/3o?, rj^rjeaaa, evpvTropos,
drpvyeros, a6ecrcf)aTOs, iroXu j, yXavKrj. Rarely would one of
these epithets be used to give a characteristic of the sea at a
special time. It is in imitation of Homer that Theocritus,
Id. I 58, calls milk Xevtcov , — of course, not to distinguish
white milk from milk of another color but to bring the object
vividly before the mind by mentioning a quality of it which
all would recognize as belonging to the nature of the object.
The choice among these stereotyped conventional epithets
was often determined by the convenience of metre or rhythm
(see § 4 b f.). It should be noted that of the epithets of the
sea only two (aTpuyeTo?, evpviropol) have the same metrical
value.

q. Almost every prominent person in the poems has some
special epithet or epithets. Pope calls these “a sort of
supernumerary pictures of the persons or things they are
joined to. We see the motion of Hector’s plumes in the
epithet /copvOaioXos.” No one but Athena is yXav/cob7u<> and
the adjective becomes virtually a proper name, as y 135.
She bears this epithet 90 times, generally in the phrase Sea
yXavKOdirLs 'AOijvr]. She is ’A 6i)vr\ 41 times. Zeus

is ve^eXrjyepera Zeu? 30 times, ipLy&ov7ro<; Trocns r/Hpr]<; T times,
evpvorra Zevs 20 times, pLrjrieTa Zed? 19 times, atytoyo? (gen¬
erally in the genitive, alyto^oio^) 54 times, 7 rarrjp dvhptov re
6e mv t€ 15 times. Poseidon is yatpoyo? ivvocriycuos 8 times,
Hoaeihdwv ivoat^Ocov 24 times. Hera with a few mortal
women shares the by-name XevfcdXevos (24 times, generally
in the phrase 6ea XevKooXevos r/H and she is fioooTris iroTvia
r/Hp?7 14 times. The Achaeans are ivtcvrjpuhe^ ’A ycuoi 36 times,
Kcipr) Kopbowvre 9 29 times, in the genitive ’A ycuwv yaXKo^irdivwv
24 times, 2 Ae? ’A ^cawy 64 times, Xao? ’A ^cumv 22 times, Kovpot
’A xcllcov 9 times. Agamemnon is aval; dvhpwv forty-five times
in the Iliad and thrice in the Odyssey, while this title is given
to only five other chiefs, once to each. Achilles is Tro&dp/crjs
’A^AAeu? 21 times, 7ro&z9 co/ciA ’A^fiVAezA 30 times,

§ 1, <.]

HOMERIC STYLE.

13

7 ro&co/eeo? A la/clBao 10 times, iroBoo/cea II rjXelcova 10 times.
Odysseus is 7ro\urXa? 'OBvaaevs 42 times, iroXvgr)TL<;
'OBvcrcreu^ 78 times, O Bvcrarjo^ Oeloco 27 times, AaepTidBew
'OBvcrr/os 11 times, iroXv gg^ap' O Bvcrcrev 24 times. Iris, the
messenger of the gods in the Iliad, is i roBgpegos co/cea T pts
9 times. Hector is /copvOaioXo ? 37 times, (fialBigos r/E /crop
30 times. Of. ‘plus Aeneas,' ‘fetus Achates'

r. The situation of the moment seems sometimes to con¬
tradict the epithet, as top Be IBcop plygcre (3ogp dyado? A toggBg^;
E 596 at sight of him Diomed good at the war cry shuddered.

s. Synonymous Expressions. The poet is fond of a
cumulation of synonymous or nearly synonymous expres¬
sions, many of which remind the reader of redundant legal
expressions, as efreor/jeras' Trpoar/vBa A 201 lifted up his voice
and addressed her ; eVo? r ecf)aT etc t opoga^ep A 361 spoke
a word and called upon him ; egev £eoi nos /cal eirl %6ovl
Bep/cogepoio A 88 ; airpidTgp dvdiroivov A 99, tmp ov tl gera-
rpeirg ovB ’ dAeyl^ei? A 160, i roXegoi re gdyat re A 177, tcclptwp
gep /cpareeLp eOeXec irdpTecrcn B ’ dpdaaeip, | ttclctl Be crggaipeip
A 288 f., ovt eipogai ovre geraXXw A 553, o\Jreac et k eOeXycrOa
/cal el' /cep rot ra gegr/Xg A 353, / )yr)Topes rjBe geBopres B 79,
a/3pogoc aviayoi N 41, oX/3w re ttXovtw re II 536, cuctto?
clttvcttos a 242, pgrrepOes r ayffXop re B 221, dpprj/cTOVs oXvtovs
6 275. Sometimes the same stem is repeated for emphasis,
in a different form, as oyjngop o'^nreXeaTop B 325, /cetTo geya< ?
geyaXcocrTL X 26, diroiXero Xvypcp oXedpp y 87.

t. Epexeg-esis. A clause is often added epexegetically,
to explain a preceding clause or word, as pggeprea ftovXgp, \
poo-top ’O Bvcrcrfjo^ TaXacrffpopos, co? /ce per/Tac a 86 f., where
poo-top is in apposition with fiovXgp and is itself explained
by w? /ce perjTac, — iraTpotyopga . . 6 oi iraTepa kXvtop e/cTa
a 299 f. ; ggpLp . . ovXogepgp rj gvpO ’ Kyaiois aX ye €07) /cep
A 1 f . ; reT^o? apeiop o /c dpBpdai Xoiyop dgvpai O 736 a better
wall (namely, one) which would ivard off destruction from the
men ; yiypogepw . . ore gep T6/ce gyrgg rj 198; tcl t€ Bcop' 'Afpo-

14

HOMERIC STYLE.

[§ 1, «.

Slrgs, | g re KOfirj to re elSo ? T 54 f. ; aperrjv crgr (pacrepcer g
roi oirgSei 6 237 ; el pier Sg rvr rovro <pl\or fiarcdpecrcn 6eoc-
cnv, | voaryjaai 'OSvcrga 7ro\v<ppora orSe SopoorSe kt\. a 82.
For explanatory asyndeton, see § 2 m.

u. The species often follows in apposition with the genus,
as tcvpiCLT a pLcucpa daXdaag^ | ttovtov 'lfcaploio B 144 f. ; 'tpg^ |
Kipicos ^ 86 f. ; /3o0? | Tavpos B 480 f. ; crno? Kairpov P 21; opm-
cnr alyvirioionr II 59. Of. e/crodev aWcor | grgaTgponr a 132 f.
apart from the others , the suitors , and the epexegetical use of
the infinitive, as epiSi £ vregtce pidyeaQai A 8 brought together
in strife , to contend.

v. Thus also the part of the mind or body which is em¬
ployed or especially affected is mentioned, as ov/c 'Ay agegrom
grSare 6vgd> A 24, yeoo/xez'o? fcrjp A 44, tceyapoiaro dvgp A 256,
ev ocpdaXgoicur opacrOai F 306, iroal 7 Tpo(3i(3ds N 158, Trader
aXyea or Kara Ovgor a 4.

w. Stereotyped Expressions. The same expressions
recur under similar circumstances. We find a stereotyped
description of a feast and of the preparations for it, of the
breaking of day and of the approach of night, of doffing or
donning sandals and armor ; there are conventional expressions
for setting out on a journey, for an attack in battle, for the fall
and death of a warrior, for lying down to rest. Speeches are
introduced and followed by set verses, as teal pur (or o-^ea?)
(poor era? eirea Trrepoerra irpocrgvSa A 201, and in fifty other
places; 6 crcpcr ev (pporeoor dyopgaaTo teal geTeenrer A 73 and
in fourteen other places, while the second hemistich is found
several times in other combinations ; g tol b y eliroor tear
dp' e^ero, tolctl S' drearg A 68, 101, B 76, H 354, 365, /3 224.
These stereotyped verses have been compared with the fre¬
quently recurring “And Job answered and said,” “Then
Eliphaz the Temanite answered and said," of the book of
Job, and with the set form in which the reports of the mes¬
sengers were brought to the man of Uz, — each of the four
reports ending “and I only am escaped alone to tell thee.”

§ 2, c.]

HOMERIC STYLE.

15

§ 2. a. Parechesis, Onomatopoeia, etc. The poet seems
to have looked with indifference on the similarity of sound
in neighboring words. He does not appear to have designed
the rhyme in l/cecrOac, Se^eadac A 19 f., Scocrec, drrdxjec A 96 f.,
yeouca, re/covaa A 413 f., epvcrcrav, rdvvcraav A 485 f., or in
instances like H 9 ff., where three successive verses rhyme,
ending eolo, irnroSapcoco, eolo , or between the two liemistichs
of a verse, as eairere vvv /jlol M ovacu 'OXypcirca Scbpcar eyoo-
acu B 484.

Most examples of parechesis (7rap??y?7crt?) and alliteration
are probably accidental, as iroXXewv etc n toXccov B 131, e’? iroXe-
pcov 7 rcoXpaeac E 350, /celvos ye eoucorc rcelrac a 46, apccf)' O Svar/t
Sacfypovc Saierac rjrop a 48, Saacrdpcevoc Sacvvvr epucvSea Sacra
y 66, 7 rarpi re crc 3 pceya rrrjpca 'ttoXtjc re rravrc re Srjpcw T 50.

b. Occasionally an onomatopoetic ( ovopcarorrocca ), imitative

expression is used, giving a kind of echo in the sound, as
rpcyQd re real rerpayOd T 363, of the breaking of the sword
of Menelaus ; i roXXd S' dvavra icdravra rrdpavrd re So^pud
r r/X0ov 'E 116, of the men and mules going up hill and
down, over a rough road for wood ; etc Se XpocryU /3rj

rrovroTcopoco A 439, where a vivid imagination may perhaps
hear the measured steps of the damsel as she leaves the ship,
with a quick rush at the close; tcvpcara rra^Xd^ovra rroXv-
(f)Xoco-/3oio 6aXd<rcrr)<i N 798; avres errecra rreSovSe KvXcvSero
Aaa? dvacSr) ? X 598, of the rolling back of the stone which
Sisyphus in Hades was continually urging to the summit of
a hill.

c. The poet plays occasionally on the names of his heroes,
as npodoo? 0oo? pyepcovevev B 758 (“swift by nature as well as
by name ”) ; TA??7ro\e;uoi' . • • rXppcova Ovpcov eywv E 668 ff. ;
Eo7re/0et rrecOovro w 465 f. ; r/E /crop . . <£% rrov arep Xacbv 1 rc-
Xcv e^epcev E 472 f., and eye? S' dAoyoo? fceSvds /cal vr\ma re/a a
fl 730 (Andromache is grieving for her dead husband), where
e^epcev and eye? seem to be selected with reference to the
assumed etymology of ''TL/crcop. Possibly there is a play on

16

HOMERIC STYLE.

[§ 2, d.

the name of Odysseus in ov vv r 'OSvaaevs . . tl vv ol roaov
wSvaao Zev a 60 ff. ; his name is explained (with doubtless
incorrect etymology) where his grandfather bestows it upon
him, oovcrorafjLevos too i/cavco . . r co o Uoiureuv ovofi ecrrco eirco -
vvfiov r 407 ff. ; cf. oSvaavro yap avrcp (Odysseus) | Zeu? re
/cal ’HeXto? t 275 f., coSe YlocrecSdcov evocrlyfwv \ dtSvaar e/cird-
yXws e 339 f.

cl. The trick is well known which Odysseus played on
Polyphemus by assuming the name Ovn^ c 366, 408 ; cf.
the pun on purj rt? and pirjTts, l 410, 414 : el puev 5) pu) to? ae
ficd^erac . . ipiov 5’ eyeXacrcre cfrlXov /cr/p | &><? ovopu e^a7Tdrrjcrev
ipiov /cal yuTJrt? dpivpLccv. Another celebrated passage is con¬
cerning the ivory and horn gates of the dreams : o'l puev [oWt-
pod\ /c eXdcocn Bid irpLGTOv eXe<fiavro< ?, | ol p eXec^alpovraL, . .

r/ o >/

OL Se Sea ^earcov /cepacov eXdcocn Ovpa^e, | ol p ervpca /cpaivovcn
r 564 ff. But it is improbable that the similarity of sound is
intentional in e^ero (Helen) S’ ev /cXio-pccp, viro Se Opyws iroalv
( for the fee t) rjev. | avri/ca S' rj y eireeaaL irocnv ( husband )
epeeivey e/caara S 136 f., or Xe/cro ( counted ) S' dpiOpiov . . eireira
Se Xe/cro ( lay down) /cal avros S 451, 453.

e. Comparisons. A notable characteristic of Homeric
style is the comparison. This is designed to throw into high
relief some point in the action narrated ; it often relieves
the monotony of the description of a battle. But the poet
is not always satisfied to illustrate the particular point for
which the comparison is introduced ; he often completes the
picture by adding touches which have nothing to do with
the narrative, and is sometimes drawn on to add a new point
of comparison, as N 492 ff. There the Trojans are described
as following their leader, as sheep follow their bell-wether.
This scene is completed by adding to the original com¬
parison the thought of the joy in the shepherd’s heart as
he watches his orderly flock, and this suggests the second
comparison : “ So Aeneas rejoiced at seeing the soldiers fol¬
low him.”

§ 2, h.-]

HOMERIC STYLE.

17

f. Illustrations are furnished by all experiences of life, from
the lightning of Zeus and the conflict of opposing winds,
from the snow-storm and the mountain torrent, to a child
playing with the sand on the seashore, and a little girl cling¬
ing to her mother’s gown ; from lions and eagles, to a stub¬
born ass which refuses to be driven from a cornfield by chil¬
dren, and to a greedy fly ; from the evening star to women
wrangling in the street. The lion is a special favorite, and
appears in comparisons thirty times in the Iliad. The Iliad
has but few illustrations drawn from the actions of men, such
as weaving (T 760 ff.), tanning (P 389 ft.), or the grief of a
father for his dead son ('T 222 ff., cf. the delight of children
at their father’s recovery from wasting disease, e 394 ff.) ;
and but one from the operations of the mind (O 80 ff.),
where a traveler thinks of different places in rapid suc¬
cession.

g. Homer, like Milton, could not think of an army in
motion without thinking of its resemblance to something
else. Just before the Catalogue of the Ships, the movements
of the Achaean armies are described by six detailed com¬
parisons, B 455-483 : the brightness of their armor is com¬
pared with the gleam of fire upon the mountains ; their noisy
tumult, with the clamor of cranes or swans on the Asian
plain ; in multitude, they are as the innumerable leaves and
flowers of spring-time; they are impetuous and bold as the
eager flies around the farm buildings ; they are marshalled
by their leaders as flocks of goats by their herds; their
leader (Agamemnon) is like to Zeus, to Ares, to Poseidon,
— he is preeminent among the heroes as a bull in a herd of
cattle.

h. The Iliad has 182 detailed comparisons, 17 briefer (as
ircucrlv eoucores rjyopaaaOe \ vrj'Kidyoi^ 049 ov tl fieKei TroXe/jLijui
epya B 337 f.), and 28 of the briefest sort; the Odyssey has
39 detailed comparisons, 6 briefer, and 13 very brief. The
first book of the Iliad has only two comparisons, and those

18

HOMERIC STYLE.

[§ 2, i.

of the briefest, 6 8' rjte vv/ctI eoircws A 47, rjvr A 359.

All the other books of the Iliad contain detailed compari¬
sons ; II and P have 20 each, N and O have 15 each, A has 14.

i. In comparisons, the poet sometimes makes reference to
customs that do not seem to have prevailed in the siege of
Troy: to riding on horseback (O 679), to the use of a kettle
for boiling meat (4> 362), to the use of the trumpet in war
(2 219). This seems to imply a consciousness of change of
customs between heroic and Homeric times.

j. Comparisons are introduced by co? re, &>? el, ci>? ore,

irep ktX.

Praepositive &>? is not used in comparisons. In the briefest
comparisons, postpositive is often used, generally length¬
ening the preceding syllable (§§ 12 l , 41m).

k. The aorist indicative (the so-called Gnomic aorist) is
often used in comparisons. The imperfect is found but
twice (O 274, <f> 495).

l. Asyndeton. In the Homeric period more frequently
than in later Greek, sentences were left unconnected by
conjunctions, i.e. asyndeton (H. 1039) was allowed more
freely. It has been noticed above that ornamental epithets
are not connected by /caf, and sometimes in animated dis¬
course the poet uses no conjunction between clauses or
words, as dirpcaryv dvdirocvov A 99.

m. Asyndeton of sentences is most frequent where the
second sentence explains the first and is in a kind of apposi¬
tion with it, repeating the thought in a different form : dXXa
/cal a)? ideXw Sopcevac irdXiv el to y dpceivov • | /3ovXo/.i eyco
Xaov abov e/JLfievcu rj diroXeaOac A 116 f., &> ttottol , rj pueya irev-
do? 'A^aUSa yalav l/cdvei' | rj /cev yr)6r)<rcu Ylplapios YlptdpiOio
re 7 raiSes A 254 f., aAA,’ oS' dvrjp eOeXec i re pi irdvrcov epbpbevai
aXXcov, J irdvrwv pcev /cpareeiv eOeXec irdvrecrcn S' dvdcrcreiv
A 287 f. In B 299, rXrjre cfrlXoi /cal pceivar' errl yjpovov gives
the sum of the preceding sentence, and the asyndeton marks
the speaker’s warmth of feeling. Thus the second sentence

§ 2, o.]

HOMERIC STYLE.

19

may express the result of the former, as %elve kclkws dvSpdrv
ro^d^eac • (therefore) ov/cer dedXcov \ aXXcov dvridcreis % 27 f.
An adversative relation is occasionally expressed by asynde¬
ton, especially with ye phev in the second clause, as B 703,
E 516, H 642.

n. The absence of a conjunction often gives rapidity to

the stvle and thus is found often where the second sentence

%/

begins with avrUa or alyfra, as el S' aye phyv TreLpTjcrcu . . al\jrd
roc alpha fceXaivov epcoijaet 7 repl Sovpi A 302 f., avrl/ca /cepro-
phLOLcrL A la YLpovhoova rrpoarjvSa A 539, cf. B 442. For the
tone of rapidity thus given to a narration, cf. Soviryaev Se
ireadv, dpdfBrjae Se rev%e iir avrar • ] ac/iarh ol Sevovro rcophai
KT X. P 50 f.

Conjunctions are often omitted in excitement, as when
Achilles sees the dame flickering among the ships of the
Achaeans and calls to Patroclus opcreo Scoyeves Tlarpo/cXeis
. . | Xevcraw Sr] irapa vrjval irvpo^ Sr/hoco Icorjv * | phi ) Srj vr)a$
eXwcri . . | Svaeo revyea Sacraov II 126 ff.

o. Chiasmus.1 For emphasis, the poet sometimes so ar¬

ranges the words of two clauses that the extremes, as also the
means, are correlative with or are contrasted with each other,
as 7 ralSd re crol dyephev, Qoiftcp 6' leprjv e/car6ph/3r]v A 443,
where rralSa and eKar6ph(3r]v, crol and respectively are

contrasted. Cf. &)? 'A^yCXya | rtphycrr ;? oXeays Se 7roXea? A
558 f., SvcrphevecrLv phev ydppha, /cary^ehyv Se crol avra) T 51, apv ,
erepov Xev/cov, ereprjv Se pheXaivav , [ T?} re teal ’HeXtm T 103 f.,
where the black lamb was for T?; and the white for ’HeXto?,
— ftacnXevs r dyaOos teparepos r alyphr/rr]^ F 179, where the
adjectives are brought together ; avrov r Icryavdacncov epyrv-

1 The name is given from the Greek letter X, there being a crossing of

ideas as Q _ , / ’ > Q/

paai\cvs t ayauos

Kparepos ■P' alxP-VTVS T 179.

It should be noticed that this chiastic arrangement is often the most simple
and natural, as in the first example above, where aoi at once suggests the
other person interested, 4>oo8oy.

20

HOMERIC STYLE.

[§ 2> P*

ovro re \aov O 723. Of. Milton’s “Sweet is the breath of
morn, her rising sweet,” Par. Lost IV 641, “ Adam the good¬
liest man of men since born His sons, the fairest of her
daughters Eve,” Par. Lost IV 323 f.

p. Epanalepsis. Sometimes a word (generally a proper

name) or a clause is repeated in the same sentence at the
beginning of a new verse, as a\X 6 gev AW loir as geretclaOe
rrjXoO' eovras, | AWlorras rol Sebalarac /cr\. a 22 f. (the

only example in the Odyssey) ; tw 8’ eyco dvrio ? elgt /cal el
rrvpl ^elpas eoucev, | el irvpl ^elpas eoitce, gevos 8’ aWoovi cnBgpp
T 371 f. but I ivill go to meet him even if his hands are like to
fire , if his hands are like to fire and his might is like to bright
iron ; ov gev i rw? vvv ecrnv . . | rep oapifegevat a re irapOevos
gWeos re, | irapOevos 7) Weos r. oapi^erov dWrfKouv X 126 ff.
it is in no way possible now to chat with him as a maiden and
a young man, a maiden and a young man chat together. Of.
Milton’s Lycidas 37 f. “But 0 the heavy change, now thou
art gone, Now thou art gone and never must return.” The
name is repeated at the beginning of three successive verses
(N cpevs . . N cpevs . . N /pecs') B 671 ff. Of. also B 838, 850,
871, Z 154, H 138, M 96, 86, 158, T 642. The name when

repeated is attracted into the case of the following relative
pronoun in ’A vhpogdyg, Ovydrgp geyaXyropos ’Aericovos, | He-
r lcov os evatev viro TWa/cp vXgeacrg Z 395 f. Andromache
daughter of the great-souled Letion, Eetion who dwelt at the
foot of woody Placus.

q. Similar to epanalepsis is the so-called eir/'n-Xo/cif where
the finite verb is repeated in a participle, as gelhgaev 8e (3ow -
7 ns irorv/a r/Apg, | geWtjcracra 8’ erre/ra ep ey/cdrOero koXtto) H
222 f. ; T ev/cpos 8’ copgr'jOg gegacos diro rev^ea hvaai, | r/K/crcop
8’ opggOevros d/covr/cre bovpl cpae/vp N 182 f. Teucer rushed ,
eager to strip off his armor, but at him as he rushed , Hector
hurled his shining spear ; r/E tcrwp dpggOg . . | A fa? 8’ bpgijdev -
to? ope^aro r> K/cropos N 188 ff.

Litotes (X/rbrgs or geicoais), a simplicity of language,

r.

§ 2, *.]

HOMERIC STYLE.

21

or understatement of the truth , is common to all languages ;
Milton’s “unblest feet” is stronger than cursed feet. Ho¬
meric examples abound, as ov/c ' Ayagegvovc gvSave 6vgw> A
24 it was not pleasing to the soul of Agamemnon, i.e. it was
hateful , etc. ; a^jr S' e? /covXeov Mae geya ovS' dirlOgaev |

gvOw ' Adrjvairji ; A 220 f. back into the sheath he thrust his
great sivord nor did he disobey the word of Athene, i.e. he
obeyed ; f/ E/crMp S' ov tl 6eas eVo? gyvoigaev B 80T ; ov /ca/cbv
ear tv | retpogevots erapotatv dgvvegev aiirvv oXedpov S 128 f.,
i.e. it is a noble thing , etc. ; ov gtv dcpavporaTos /3dX' ’A yatwv
O 11.

s. Periphrasis. Certain periphrases occur frequently,

as afere Se Uptdgoto (30 ]v T 105 bring the might of Priam, i.e.
the mighty Priam; gereeuf iepg o? T gXega^oto (3 409 the
strength of Telemachus, etc.; TlacjdXayovwv S' gyelro HuMu-
geveos Xdatov /cgp B 851 , errea' f/E Kropo? M/ca yagaX gevos

H 418 ; eXOcov yap p e/ca/cMae (3lg 'H pa/cXgeig A 690, where the
gender of the participle shows that (3tg 'Hpa/cXgelg is equiva¬
lent to 'Apa/cXegs, which ( - w — ) was not suited to dactylic

verse ; tolov yap /cXeos eaOXov dirwXeaav gvioyoto ’VP 280, for
roiov ev/cXeia gvco^ov ktX. ; ra relpea irdvra . . to re aOevos
’ Q.ptwvoi ; % 485 f. all the constellations . . the force of Orion ;
g 67T6L covgaas /cpaSigv Am? ge teal epyp A 395.

SovXtov ggap Z 463 is simply a poetic expression for slav¬
ery , eXevOepov ggap T 193 for freedom, oXiOptov ggap T 294
for destruction, ggap optyavucov X 490 for the state of orphan¬
age, voartgov ggap a 9 for return.

t. Zeugma. Sometimes two connected subjects or objects
are made to depend on a verb which is appropriate to but
one of them, as g gev eiretra \ els aXa aXro . . | Zeu? Se eov
irpos Swga ( sc . ef3g') A 531 ff. she then leaped into the sea , but
Zeus went to Ids own house ; g%L e/edarov | Ittttoi depaiiroSes
/cal TTouciXa revye e/ceuro T 326 f. ivhere the high-stepping
horses of each were standing and the bright armor teas

ing ; eSovai re i riova ggXa | olvov t e^acrov geXcgSea M

22

HOMERIC STYLE.

[§ 2, «*.

319 f. ; YLvkXcottwv S' e? 7 aiav eXevcraoyev eyyu? eovrcov, | kclit-
vov r avrwv re (f)6oyyrjv olwv re /cal alycov 1 166 f. ; eaaaro S'
e/crocrOev jpivov iroXioio Xv/cooo, | /cparl S' eVt /cnSerjv /cvverjv
K 334 f. Of. Shakespeare, Sonnet 55, T “Nor Mars his sword,
nor war’s quick fire shall burn | The living record of your
memory.”

u. Hysteeon Proteron. Occasionally the more impor¬
tant or obvious object or action is mentioned before another
which should precede it in strict order of time, as aya rpdfev
ySe yevovro A 251 ivere bred and born with him (cf. Shake¬
speare Twelfth Night I ii “For I was bred and born | Not
three hours’ travel from this very place.”), 7 ayeovri re yec-
voyevw re S 208 to him as he is married and born , eXyara r
dycf)ieaacra OuooSea /cal Xovaaaa e 264 putting about him per¬
fumed garments and bathing him, yXaivdv re yir&vd re evvvr
'OSucrcrevs e 229 Odysseus put about him cloak and tunic, av-
tou? r ay(3alveiv dvd re rrpvyvtjaca \vaat i 178 both themselves
to embark and to loose the stern hawsers, 61 S' aveadv re 7 ruXa?

/cal dirwaav oyfias 4? 53T.

v. Later Change in Words. The student must be
watchful to apprehend the exact Homeric meaning of words
which are used in a slightly different sense in later Greek.
Thus dyoprj and dycbv are used in Homer of an assembly ,
gathering , not of market and contest. 'AlStjs is always the
name of a person, not of a place. dotSo?, doiSf are used
for the Attic iroirjrps, vyvo^, — eVo? is used for X070? (only
O 393, a 56) , Oeayos for voyos, /cocryea) for racraco. Seivos
means terrible , not skillfid. Seiirvov is the principal meal of
the day, whenever it is taken, ey yo? means spear , never
sivord. r/pcos is used of all the warriors; it does not mean
a hero in the English sense. Oven is used not of sacrifices in
general, but of the burning of the drrapyai (“ first fruits ”)
or OvrjXai to the gods. Oavyd^w often means only watch in¬
tently. /cpLvo) is select , discriminate , rather than judge, voeco
often has the sense of alaOdvoyai (which is not Homeric),

§ 2, y.]

HOMERIC STYLE.

23

'perceive. ovogac is not blame in a general way, but think
not enough , insufficient, ovrd^w is wound with a weapon held
in the hand, not with a missile, ire giro) is escort , attend , as
well as send ; cf. irogiri] convoy , irogiros a guide , and irogiri],
in Attic, processio?i. i roXegos is often battle rather than war.
irpijaao) is carry through rather than do as in Attic.
is near , of place, not almost, ad) pa is used only of a dead
body, Sega? being used of the living form, and avro<; and
irepl xP°t faking some of the Attic uses of ad)ya. rdxa
always means quickly , never perhaps as in later Greek.
TiOrjpi is often used like iroteo) make. (f>6j3os is not fright
but flight ; <f)o/3eopai is not fear but flee ; <j)v%a is flight with
the added notion of fear or shame, (ppa^oo is point out, not
say. co? does not mean since.

w. The accent of some words is not the same as in Attic,
as tbe P 179 for the Attic ISe; in lao$ (Attic hxo?) and (frapos
(Attic </>dpo9), this results from the difference in quantity
(§ 41 f y). The ancient grammarians call eiolgos, ipf/gos,
o/xoto?, yeXoios opyvca the Homeric and older forms for eroi-
gos, epygos, ktX., and opyvtd. Cf. pvpia countless number, for
the Attic pvpia ten thousand.

x. aWpp is feminine in Homer, as n 365 ; masculine in
Attic. /clo)v is sometimes feminine, as a 127 ; sometimes
masculine, as 0 66. ''IXto? is feminine in Homer (except per¬
haps O 71), but neuter (’'LUozd) in prose.

y. The absence from the Homeric vocabulary of alaOdvo-
gai, Xoyos, iroirfrps, rdaao), vgvos has been noted above. To
this list may be added dvhpdiroha (only II 475), apTo? (only

p 343, a 120, elsewhere airos is used instead), (3dp/3apos (but *
f 3ap/3ap6(f)(ovo ? B 867), Sgl (only I 337), SovXos (but SovXt]

T 409, S 12, hovXoavvr] x 423, SovXcov r/gap thrice, SovXecov
o) 252), eVr^eqxo, eairepa (but eairepos and eairepLof), tyrco,
Kvvrjyerrjf; (only i 120, elsewhere drfpnjnjpfl gepos Qgoipa takes
its place), gera^v (only A 156, elsewhere peaarjyvsfl giaaga,
gcaea) (only P 272), irevir] (only £ 157, irevtxpos y 848), iropev-

24

HOMERIC SYNTAX.

[§ 3, a.

o/jlcu , cro^)09, crocpLT] (only O 412), arreipcn (but crirepga once,
e 490),

HOMERIC SYNTAX.

§ 3. a. In syntax as in forms, where the Homeric dialect
differs from the Attic, it may be presumed that the Homeric
usage is the earlier. The language was less rigid ; custom
had not yet established certain constructions as normal.
There was greater freedom in the use of the modes and the
cases, of prepositions and conjunctions.

b. It is impossible to bring the Homeric uses of the modes
under the categories and rules that prevailed in the Attic
period. Intermediate in force between the simple future and
the potential optative with av were

(1) the subjunctive as a less vivid future, as ov yap 7 rco
tolovs IBov dvepas ovBe iBcogaL A 262 I never yet saiv such men
nor shall I see them ;

(2) the subjunctive with /cev or civ, as a potential mode,
as el Be /ce gg Bcococnv eyco Be /cev avros eXcogac A 137 hut if
they shall not give it , I myself will then take, etc.; rcov /cev tl$
roB ’ e^rjcnv eirel 6dve Bloc: ’OBucrcreu? a 396 of these some one
may have this honor since divine Odys.seus perished ; ov/c dv
rot xpaLo-yr) /ciQapic; Y 54 the cithara ivould not in that case
avail thee ;

(3) the potential optative without dv , as peia 6eos f 16 e-
Xcov /cal TifXoOev avBpa aacocrac <y 231 easily could a god if he
wished bring a man home in safety even from a distant land.

Examples of the future indicative with av are rare and
the correctness of the text is doubted. Thus /cev geXrjcreL
P 515 may have been an error of the scribe for /cev geXrjarj in
transferring from the old alphabet (§ 4 i).

§ 3, d.]

HOMERIC SYNTAX.

25

c. a. Homer prefers el with the subjunctive to el icev ( at '
/cev ) or el av with the subjunctive, el av is not used in gen¬
eral conditions.

j3. el' tcev is rarely used with the optative (29 times in all) ;
never in the expression of a wish, el av is used with the
optative but once, el i rep av aural j pcovaai delhotev B 597 f.

y. el with the optative to express indefinite frequency of
past action, is found but once, dW' ec rls /xe /cal aWos evl
yeydpoicriv evlrrrot O 768 but if Q whenever ) even another in
the palace upbraided me.

8. The optative in indirect discourse is used for the in¬
dicative in direct discourse only in questions, except elirelv,
cos eXOoi /cal i/cour is rrarpl8a yaiav co 287.

e. In six passages the optative with a :ev is used in the
apodosis, where Homeric and Attic usage alike lead us to
expect av with a past tense of the indicative, as /cal vv /cev
evu aiToXoiro ava£ avopcov JXiveias , j ei pip ap o£u vorjcre ialos
Ovydrpp ’Acf)po8lrp E 311 f. “ Aeneas would have perished
if Aphrodite had not perceived,” etc.

f. /cev is used four times as frequently as av. av is more
common in negative than in affirmative sentences.

d. The cases retained more of their original force than in
Attic and had less need of a preposition to make the con¬
struction distinct (it was once thought that the poet omitted
the preposition for the convenience of his verse), as the abla-
tival genitive in T pcoas dpcvve vecov O 731 he was warding
off the Trojans from the ships, ep/cos ’ Ayaioicriv ireAerai rroXe-
pioio /ca/coio A 284 is a bulwark for the Achaeans from (to
keep off) evil war , /capiraXlpicos aveSv 7ro\irjs d\os gvr opclffp
A 359 swiftly she rose as a mist out of the hoary sea. The
dative of place is often found without a preposition, as rof’
copLOicnv e^cov A 45 having his bow upon his shoulder.

The prepositions still retained much of their adverbial
nature, and had not become fixedly attached to the verbs
which they modified (§ 37). It was once thought that the

26

HOMERIC SYNTAX.

[§ 3,

occasional separation of verb and preposition was a poetic
license, and (considered as a surgical operation) it was called

tmesis.

e. In the Homeric period certain constructions were only
beginning to appear definitely in use, as the accusative with
the infinitive and the genitive absolute. The infinitive was
assuming more and more the character of an indeclinable
noun, but is not found with the article, ware with the in¬
finitive of result is found but twice, and these passages are
thought to be corrupt ; this construction is found but four
times in Pindar’s odes.

f. a. The genitive absolute is more frequent with the
present participle (52 examples, 28 in Iliad and 24 in Odys¬
sey, — not quite half being temporal) than with the aorist
participle (21 examples, IT in Iliad and 4 in Odyssey, —
only 7 being strictly temporal). The genitive absolute with
omitted subject is particularly rare, and is denied by most
scholars ; but an approach to it is made in expressions like
Ty\e 8 ' iv fiev tcpaSiy pueya Trevdos ae^ev \ /3\tj/jL€vov
p 489 f., where the participle agrees with ’O5ucn}o9 to be sup¬
plied, as genitive of cause. The participle sometimes seems
to be used with omitted subject when it really agrees with
the genitive implied in a preceding dative (<7. y below).

/ 3 . It is often impossible to say categorically whether the
genitive is in the absolute construction or rather depends on
some other word, as viro 8e Tpwe? Ke^a8ovro | dv8pos d/covria-
aavros A 497 f., where the position of the genitive at the be^
ginning of the verse gives it greater independence, but it was
probably influenced by the verb: the Trojans drew hack from
the man as he hurled his javelin ; cf. e/c\ay^av 8’ dp’ outtoI
67T ’ cbpiOOV ^toopievoto | aVTOXJ K,LVr\0 kvTO<$ A 46 f.

y. Sometimes a preposition is used where the genitive
absolute would be used in Attic prose, as dpb<j>\ 8e vr/es | ap,ep-
8a\eov Kovdftrjcrav dvcrdvrcov vi r ' A^ yauov B 333 f.

g-. a. The dative of interest is often used with the verb

§ 3, h.]

HOMERIC SYNTAX.

27

where the English idiom prefers a possessive genitive with a
noun, as Seivcb Se oi oaae f>dav6ev A 200 terribly did her (lit.
for her the ) eyes gleam ; 6ea Se oi etcXvev dpi)? S 767 the god¬
dess heard her prayer (lit. for her the prayer') ; or is used
instead of an ablatival genitive with a preposition, as A avaoi-
criv deucea Xoiyov drrdxrei A 97 ivill ward off ignominious de¬
struction from (lit. for ) the Danai ; or instead of a genitive
with verbs of ruling and leading, as rrdvrecrcn S' dvdcrcreiv
A 288 to reign over (lit. be the king for) all ; (Zeu?) o? rracri
OvrjToicn teal ddavdroicriv dvdacrei M 242 ; or instead of the
dative with a preposition, as roiai S' dreary A 68 for them
rose (not to be taken as a local dative, among them), while
in iv ’ Apyelotcnv dvaards T 175 the poet presents the same
general idea from another point of view.

j3. This dative of interest is used even of things, as /ceXad-
arjai Se vrjvcrl /cadeiXogev laria it dvr a l 149 when the ships
were beached (lit. for the ships when they were beached) we
lowered all the sails.

ry. This dative was felt to be equivalent to the genitive,
and is often followed by a participle or adjective in the geni¬
tive, as ryuv S’ avre Kare/cXacrOri cf)lXov r/rop j Seicrdvrwv cpOoy
yov re /3api)v avrov re ireXwpov l 256 f. our dear hearts sank
within us, as fear came upon us, etc., where Seiadvrwv agrees
' with the kjgcov implied in ygiv.

h. a. The dative is used with crvv or dga, corresponding
to g era with the genitive in Attic prose; in this sense even
gerd is occasionally used with the dative (almost always
plural), as errerovro gerd rrvoLrjs dvegoio (3 148 they flew ( i.e .
kept pace) with the blasts of the ivind ; cf. aga irvoifj ? dvegoio
a 98, the simple dative of association rrerero i rvoifjs dvegoio
M 207.

(3. errl is used with the dative in the same sense of hostility
as with the accusative in Attic, as wpaev err ’ ’A pyeloiai M 298
roused him against the Argives ; cf. erreaOai errl (3acriXea Xen.

An. I 4. 14.

28

HOMERIC SYNTAX.

[§ 3, i.

7. in to is used with the dative in almost the same sense
as with the genitive in Attic, as e8dyg in ro yepcrl 7 ro8co/ceo?
AlafciSao B 860 he was slain by the hands of the swift-footed
Aeacides, with perhaps more of the original local force of the
preposition.

i. Some constructions were used more freely and con¬
stantly than in later Greek. Certain of these were always
looked upon as poetic, as Oeig 'jrehloio Z 50T shall run over
the plain ; eireTovro koviov re? irehioio 6 122 few hastening ( cov¬
ered with dust') over the plain (genitive of the place to which
the action belongs, H. 760; G. 179, 2); 7 rupo? Oepeco p 23
warm at the fire ; yvgarripa^ dfilfcero a 332 she came to the
suitors .

j. A neuter noun in the plural is the subject of a plural
verb more frequently than in Attic. The imperfect is more
freely used in narrative, to describe an action as in progress.
The historical present is not used, earl is not always a
mere copula, and is occasionally modified by an adverb .as
a true verb of existence, cf. eirei vv tol aicra yivvvOd irep, ov
tl ydXa 8rjv A 416 since thy appointed time of life is brief \ etc.,
with yivvvSa | pyecov eaaerai rj8o<z A 317 f. brief shall be the
good from us, and yivvvOa 8e oi 7 eveO' opy rj A 466 but brief
was his onset.

k. y^pr] is still a noun, construed like yped> with a

genitive of the thing needed and occasionally an accusative
of the person (the accusative of limit of motion with some
verb like i /caver at or 717 verac supplied in thought) ; cf reo
ae yp) 8 463 of what hast thou need, with riva ypetco roaov
rLK6i /3 28 and eye 8e ypeco ylyverai avrrj ? 8 634.

yprjvac, ypewv, eypgv, ypi)v kt\. are not Homeric ; 8ei is
found only I 337. While verbals in -to? are more freely em¬
ployed than in Attic, verbals in -Teo? are not used.

l. a. Particles. The beginner in reading Homer is per¬
plexed by a. large number of particles that are often difficult
to render by English words. Their force can often be best

§ 3, m.]

HOMERIC SYNTAX.

29

given by the order of the words in the translation or by the
tone of voice in reading; to translate pd as was natural (or
even you see ) or ye at least , often throws upon the particle
very disproportionate emphasis. The student can most easily
and clearly appreciate the force of a particle by comparing a
number of examples which have become familiar to him ; he
will then see the importance of these particles to the char¬
acter and tone of a speech or of the narrative.

j3. It is to be noted that in Homer Sy may stand at the be¬
ginning of a clause, re is used far more freely than in Attic
prose ; a single re often being used to connect single notions,
as Kvveaaiv | olcdvoictl re A 4 f. The poet does not use ov/covv,
Kairot , roivvv, Syr a, SyOev, elra (but erretra ), or the causal
are. &>?, Sy, and ye are less frequent than in Attic.

y. 07T&)? is rare as a final particle, occurring only about a
dozen times ; ocj)pa is the usual particle to introduce a final
clause.

m. a. Interrogative Particles. The general interrog¬
ative particle in Homer is y, but in a double question (where
the Attic Greek uses rrorepov . . y) y or ye stands in the first
member, y or ye in the second, as rovr dyopevcrov . . J veov
pieOerreis, y /cal irarpduos eacn \ ^etvos a 174 ff. tell me this . .
whether thou art come for the first time or ivhether thou hast
been a guest of my father ; cf. A 190 ff., T 239 f. Where the
questions are less closely connected, y may introduce each,
as d) %eivoi, rlve<; eare ; 7 roOev irXeW' vypa /ceXevOa ; [ y n tcara
7 rpy^iv ; r/ akakrjcrOe | old re XyLarypes y 71 ff.

Strangers , who are ye? Whence sail ye the watery ways?
Sail ye on trade? Or are ye wandering idly like pirates?

ft. When y introduces a single question, it is rarely used
as in Attic, as a mere interrogation point ; it regularly im¬
plies emotion of some kind. This y hLairopyrucos (of inter¬
rogation) is still closely allied with the y (deftaLwrucos (of
asseveration), but the y hLarropyrucos must be carefully dis¬
tinguished from the y hca^ey/cri/cos ( disjunctive ).

30

HOMERIC SYNTAX.

[§ 3> n.

y. The interrogative apa is not Homeric,
n. Parataxis. The Homeric language is far less distinct
than the Latin or the English in the expression of logical
relations, and gives less prominence to the logical forms of
syntax; but it is seldom difficult to appreciate the ancient
idiom if an attempt is made to find the Homeric point of
mew.

The Homeric poems contain many survivals of the simplest
form of sentences. In the earliest stage of the Greek lan¬
guage clauses were not combined with each other as second¬
ary and principal ; they were simply added one to the other.
To use the technical terms, coordination or parataxis (irapd-
Taft?) was the rule, — not subordination or hypotaxis (viro-
Taft?). Hypotaxis was not possible until the language had
relative pronouns or subordinate conjunctions to serve as
joints to connect the clauses ; but originally the relatives
were demonstratives, and relative sentences have been called
parenthetic demonstrative sentences. Thus be was used in
the apodosis of relative and conditional sentences ; this was
especially frequent when the relative or conditional clause
preceded, as el be ice pd) bcbcoeriv, eye o be tcev avro<; eXcoycu A
137 but if they shall not give it , ( but ) I myself shall then take,
etc. ; elos 6 ravd ’ cop/iaive . . rj\0e b ’ ’A Opvrj A 193 f. ivhile he
was pondering this . . (but') Athena came ; oitj rrep cfivWcov
yeveij, tolt) be ical dvbpcov Z 146 as is the race of leaves , (but)
such is also the race of men. So avrdp and dWd are used
with stronger emphasis than be, as el be av tcaprepo ? even, 6ea
be ere yelvaro gr]Tr\p | a\X' obe (fxzprepos eanv 67 rel 'irKeovecraiv
dvdcrcrec A 280 f. but if thou art mighty and a goddess is thy
mother, but, etc., where the apodosis is really contrasted with
the protasis, cf. A 81 quoted in the next paragraph.

o. Compare with the foregoing the use of /ou in the con¬
clusion of relative sentences, to mark the connection of the
clauses, as d\\ ’ ore rerparov rj\0e v eros . . | /cal rore brj ri?
eecrre /3 107 f. but when the fourth year came (and) then some

§ 3, <?.]

HOMERIC SYNTAX.

31

one told etc.; gyo<; S’ ypiyeveia (f>dvrj poSoSdfcrvXos ’Hco?, | /cal
tot eycov dyopgv Oeyevos ictX. l 170 f. but when Dawn appeared
. . (and') then I called together etc. Thus also re was freely
used in subordinate clauses, as 09 ice deois eir are 16 grab ydXa t
e/cXvov avTov A 218 ivhoever obeys the gods , (and) himself the
gods readily hear; and re — re is found in both protasis and
apodosis, marking their correlation, as el i rep yap re %6\ov . .
KaTaire-^rg, | dXXd Te real yeTOTnaOev eyet kotov A 81 f. for
even if he should restrain his ivrath , but even hereafter etc.

p. The first part of a paratactic sentence may introduce the
cause or reason for what follows, as in Andromache’s words
to Hector, r/E /crop drap av you ecrcn iraTgp /cal iroTvia ygTgp, \
gSe fcaaLyvrjTos, erv Se you OaXepos TrapaKoiri y • | dXX’ dye vvv
eXeacpe kcu avTov ylyv eirl irvpycp Z 429 ff. But thou , Hector ,
art my father etc., which implies “ Hector, since thou art
my all.”

q. Correlative Constructions. The Greek language
was always fond of a parallel or antithetic construction, a
contrast, a balance, where the English subordinates one
thought to the other ; but the adversative relation, where
the English idiom would use a subordinate clause introduced
by for, although, when, while, or since, is more frequent in
these poems than in later Greek, as 09 ol TrXgalov I£e ydXcaTa
8e yuv cjuXeeaicev g 171 who sat near him for (lit. but) he ivas
his favorite ; dXXa Tvideaff • ayefyeo Se vecoTepco iaTov eyeio A
259 ; peed t dpcyvcoTrj 7 reXerat, /caXal Se Te irdcrai £ 108 she is
easily recognized although (lit. but) all are beautiful ; ’H&)9 Se
KpoKoireTrXos e/cl&vaTO rracrav 67 r alav | ol S’ eis derrv eXwv
11 695 f. Dawn ivas spreading her rays over the whole earth
when (lit. but) these drove into the city ; (cf. hvaero r geXtos
/cal toI fcXvTov aXcros l/covto £ 321 the sun set and these came
etc., for as the sun set etc., a construction which is not rare
in English or in later Greek, as /cal gSg Te gv irepl TrXg-
Oovcrav dyopav /cad ep^ovTau Trapa ftao-bXecos /cal ’Tbacrafepvovs
/cgpv/ce 9 Xen. An. II 1. 7 “when it was about the time . .

32

HOMERIC SYNTAX.

[§ 3, r.

heralds come ” etc .) ; <fivXXa ra gev r avegos ya/xd§t9 yeet,
dWa Se O' vXrj j ryXeOococra fivec, eapos S' eiriyiyverai wprj
Z 14T f. . . when the season of Spring comes on; y oi>x aXt?
4)9 to 7 rdpoiOev e/cecpere 7roX\a /cal ecrOXa \ /crrjgar' ega, gvrj-
arypes, ey4> S' ere vrjmo 9 rja (3 312 f., where the last clause is
equivalent to egov en vyiriov ovros, — ygev Srj nror egev irdpos
e/cXves ev^agevoco . . yS' en /cal vvv got roS' eirL/cpyyvov i
A 453 ff. as thou didst hear my former prayer so noiv also
fulfil this my desire; /cpelcrcrcov gev Zeo? . . /cpeicrcrwv avre Ato?
7 ever) /crX. <E> 190 f. as Zeus is mightier than the rivers , so is
the race of Zeus etc.

r. avrdp also is used where a causal particle would be used
in English, as oSvvycn ireTrapgevos * avrdp occrros j cogw evl
an^apdb yXyXaro E 399 f. thrilled ivith pains since the arrow
was fixed in his stout shoulder.

In these contrasted clauses, av, avre, avrdp, arap, dXXa, as
well as Se, may be used in correlation with gev.

s. A copulative conjunction is sometimes used where the

English uses a disjunctive or, as rparXfi rerparrXfj re A 128
threefold or (and') fourfold, in which prominence is given to
the second member, as in Se/ca/cus re /cal el/coad/ci 9 I 379; cf.
eva /cal Svo B 346, re /cal rrrpau^d B 303, rpiyfia re /cal

rerpayfd T 363, 7rez)T<2eTe9 ye /cal e^dere 9 7 115, rpls ga/cape 9
/cal rerpd/as e 306 (0 terque quaterque beati , Verg. Aen. I 94).
Cf. ev re /cal xeiPov Thuc. II 35 better or worse , bis terque
Hor. A. P. 440, rarus duabus tribusque civitatibus conventus
Tac. Agric. 12.

t. The Homeric poet sometimes puts into an independent
clause the incidental thought which in later Greek would be
expressed regularly by a participle, as Xaol S' ypyaavro Oeois
ISe yeZpa 9 dveax°v F 318 the people prayed to the gods ivith
uplifted hands (lit. and lifted their hands) for xelpas dva-
a^ovre 9, cf. geydX ’ eo^eTO, yetpa 9 dvaa^d/v A 450 ; (Zevs gep-
gypi^e 4)9 ’A^iXi/a) rtgyory, oXecry Se 7roXea9 SttI vyvcrlv ’A xaccov
B 4 was pondering lioiv he might honor Achilles by destroying

§ h a .]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

33

(lit. and destroy ) etc. ; (3rj p ipiev els dyopr/v, TraXdyp 3’ eye
yaXiceov eyyos j3 10 for /3i] eycov ktX., cf. rfxde (fiepcov, eycov
A 12 f. ; dXX' cuceovcra Kcidgao, eye 5 S' eTnireldeo pivdcp A 565
for epic 3 ireidogevrj pujdw, — rovSe Xiaaovro yepovres | A ItcoXmv
rrepurov Se dewy ieprjas I 575 “they sent the priests of the gods
to supplicate him ” ; ovS ’ eXad' AXayra . . j Zevs, oVe Sp T pco-
ecrcn SlSov erepaXtcea vitcr/v P 626 f. for ovS ' eXade SiSovs ktX.
See § 1 e.

u. This use is sometimes striking in comparisons, as cos re
crcf)f}/ces . . oltcia rrotpawyrai oScp em iracTraXoecrcrg, | ovS' diro-
Xeiirovcnv . . dXXa geyovres . . dgvyoyrat vrepl re/cvwv M 167 ff.
as ivasps build their houses near a rocky road , nor do they
abandon them , but remain and defend their children , where
the point of comparison lies not at all in o'Uca Tronjcrcoyrai
ktX. but wholly in the ovS' drroXeirrovcny /crX. See § 2 e.

v. Conversely, the participle, as in later Greek, often con¬
tains the principal idea, as gvpogevoicn Se roicn §dvr\ poSoSa-
ktvXos ’Haj? 109 “ they wept until Dawn appeared ” ; roicn
Se repiropievoicn pueXa s errl earrepos rjXdey a 423 ; oefipa Xel^Jravre
Ktolrrjv fl 285 ; fcarevevaev | 'IXioy etcirepcrayr evreiyeoy dreo-
yeeadai B 113 promised that I should sack llios and return ;
but in the very next verse is the English idiom, vvv Se /ca/cpy
dirarriv /3ovXevcraTO, teal pie /ceXevec | Svcr/cXea ''Apyos i/cecrdai
B 114 f. planned an evil deceit and bids me go etc., for a7rd-
ttjv fiovXevo-as. The two constructions are interchanged in
ervypae /3aXoov O 581 and rvygeras /3ej3Xy/ceL A 106 ff.

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

§ 4. a. The dialect of the Homeric poems is in one sense
artificial : it was spoken at no place and at no time. But it
is not a mosaic composed of words and forms chosen capri¬
ciously from the different Greek dialects ; it is a product of

34

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 4, b.

natural growth. It was developed under the influence of
the dactylic hexameter by successive generations of bards
who preserved obsolete or obsolescent words, phrases, and
forms which were suited to their verse, and who adopted also
from the common speech of their own times what was avail¬
able for their use. Thus older and newer forms subsisted
side by side, just as the English poet can choose between
loveth and loves, lovSd and lov'd , aye and ever. The poets
unconsciously excluded all that was not adapted to dactylic
verse, but they did no violence to their language ; they did
not wantonly change quantities or introduce new termina¬
tions. “ The dialect did not spring from a formless linguistic
dough kneaded in the trough of the verse.”

b. This conservation of old forms together with the intro¬
duction of new forms was very convenient for the verse ;
e.g. for the infinitive of the verb be, Homer could use egge-

vat as dactyl, w w ; egevac as anapaest, w w ; eggev as

trochee, _ w ; egev as pyrrhic, w w ; elvcu as spondee, _ .

Naturally, the choice being offered, metrical convenience de¬
termined which of these forms should be used. Metrical
convenience often or generally decided between the use of
' A^cllol or ’A pyetoo.

c. The same is true in the case of synonyms and stock epi¬
thets or phrases ; Homer uses 3£o? as a disyllable, Oelos (better
written dedo?) where he wishes a trisyllable, as 3£o? 'OSvcrcrevs,
but 'OBvcrcrgo^ Oetoio at the close of a verse. The most fre¬
quently recurring epithets of Odysseus are i roAvrAas, iroAv-
grjTLs, 7 roAvgp^avo^, raAacri^pcov, iroLfciAog^Tys, — all of dif¬
ferent metrical value. ava% dvhpwv ' A<y age gvcov is used after
the feminine caesura (§ 40/) of the third foot, but evpv tcpelwv
'Ayagegvcov, 'A.<yagegvovos ’A rpeihao, or ’A yagegvova iroigeva
Aawv after the masculine caesura of the same foot. n/VT^dSeco
’Ap^EUJo? is used after the penthemimeral caesura (§ 40 <2), iro-
3a? co/cu? XA^XXei;? after the hephthemimeral caesura (§ 40 g'),
but 7 roSdpKTjs Slos XAytXXeii?, 7ro3d>/ceo? A la/ctSao or agvgovo 9

§ 4,/.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

35

A la/clSao, irohapfcei Ylrj\eiu>VL, n roSco/cea UrjXeLcova, dpLvpiova IT r/~
A eicova, or ’A ^cWrja irroXliropOov , after the feminine caesura
of the third foot, with ’A^XXeii? as a tag when the verse
is filled up to the Bucolic diaeresis (§ 40 Ji). Of. the epithets

of Apollo, e/caroio A 385 ww _ w, 6/ctj/3uXov A 14 w _ w w,

e/caepryos A 479 W W _ W, 6fCCLTTj/3o\oV A 370 w W _ W w, €KCITT)-

fteXerao A 75 w w _ w _ w • See § 1

d. The convenience of the verse decided whether the poet
should say &><? (/xfro (before a consonant) or o>? ecpar (before
a vowel), eratpos or eVapo? (§ 5 A), irdvvvyo^ or Travvv^io^,
pLopipios or pbopcnpLos, tcelvos or e/cecpo 9. ala is used as well as
7 ata, but only at the close of the verse, where other old forms
are preserved, as diro TrarpiSos alr\<$ a 75; cf. 69 irarpiba yalav
B 174; while yrj is used half a dozen times, as T 104. In
this way the Homeric poems doubtless had considerable in¬
fluence on the language, assisting in the preservation of old
words and forms and in the establishment in use of new
words and forms which were metricallv convenient.

t j

e. The dialect is essentially Ionic and seems to have origi¬
nated among the Ionians of Asia Minor, influenced possibly
by the speech and certainly far more by the old poems of
their Aeolian neighbors. The oldest form of Greek Epic
songs seems to have been Aeolic, but the Ionians brought
Epic poetiy to perfection. Even the Pythian priestess de¬
livered the oracles of Apollo in Epic verse and Ionic dialect,
and the Dorian Spartans sang about their camp-fires the
Ionian songs of Tyrtaeus. Homer, however, does not have
certain marked Ionic peculiarities, as kws, /core for 7 rco?, 7 Tore.

f. A considerable number of Aeolisms is found in the
poems, especially in certain phrases and in certain feet of
the verse, as aXXv8i<? aXXo?, viratQa. This traditional Aeolic
influence appears still more marked in the survival of the
digamma (§ 14) which in the Homeric age was nearly or
quite obsolete in the ordinary Ionic dialect ; 110 trace of it
appears in the poems of Archilochus of Paros in the seventh

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 4, g.

3G

century B.c. Aeolic forms are found in the Homeric poems
even where the metre does not require them, as ocbeXXeiev
/3 334 for otyelXeuev, epefievvp E 659 (ipefiea-vof), dpyevvfjcu
r 141 (dpyea-vof), (pppcrlv A 268 for OrjpcrLv, (fX^erac p 221
for OXifreraL. The general formulaic character of these Aeo-
lisms indicates that they were borrowed from earlier poems
rather than from the Aeolians of the Homeric age. Aeolic
form or coloring is found also in some proper names, as Sepal-
rr/s (found also in a Thessalian inscription of 214 B.c.), from
Oepcros the Aeolic form of Odpcros insolence , daring , 0 epcriXo -
X°s, ' AXiOepcrr)^, N avcnKaa (Ionic z^u?), and perhaps Bed god¬
dess (Ionic 7) deo?). Another Aeolic peculiarity is the use
of the smooth breathing as in pleasure (cf. /JSu?), aage-
vos glad (cf. dvSdvoo, eaSov^) ; see § 12 m.

g. Some forms seem to be borrowed from other dialects ;
but it must be remembered that when the poems were com¬
posed, there was less difference between the dialects than at
the earliest period when we have monumental evidence con¬
cerning them. Thus the forms lirirora, gr/rlera ktX. (§ 16 b')
seem to be ancient rather than specifically Aeolic; that they
were not introduced simply metri causa is shown by the use
of vetpeX r/yepera Zeu? A 511 where ve^eXrjyepeTgs is metrically
admissible.

h. Some anomalies of form (as of verse) are as yet unex¬
plained, but it may be assumed that all which remain either
(1) were justified by the usage of the people and might be
explained by more complete knowledge of the history of the
language, or (2) followed the analogy of what was in use, or
(3) are errors which have found their way into the text dur¬
ing the. course of transmission to the present time. As the
poems were handed down among the Greeks at first orally,
and afterwards still uncritically for centuries, errors unavoid¬
ably crept in and there was a gradual assimilation of what
was obsolete to later and more familiar forms, when the older
forms were unprotected by the metre. erjvSave y 143 is prob-

§ 5, a.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

37

ably an ancient assimilation to Attic usage for edvSave ( efdiv -
Save, §§ 14, 25 i).

i. Doubtless also mistakes were committed in the process
of transferring the poems to the later alphabet (in official
use at Athens from the archonship of Euclides, 403 B.c.)
from the earlier alphabet in which E was used for e, tj, and
the spurious diphthong et (which arises from compensative
lengthening or contraction, Hadley 14 b), and O was used
for o, co, and the spurious diphthong ov. Thus d>003 of the
old alphabet could be interpreted as </>oo? (the form interme¬
diate between the earlier cfrdos and the Attic as i rocrcri
is intermediate between i toS-o-l and ttocti) or cj)6cos, but the
latter form seemed more natural to those who said cfxu 9, and
it was introduced into the text, as B 49. E05^ might be 9709

(or elo?) or ecos, but the latter as the familiar form is found
in the Mss., even A 193, where the metre demands the earlier
form ; and eicos is found where the rational form 7709 (or elos^)
could stand. EEN might be rjev, ggv, eev, egv. The last
form was thought to be “ by bietcraai 9 ” for rjv (as egv, the
possessive pronoun, for 97^), and seems to have been often
substituted wrongly for eev (§ 34 g'). Since cnreovs was the
Attic genitive of crireos, airetovs seemed more natural than
crirelos (or aireeos')-, as vito crireiov 9 * irepl ktX. l 141 (see
§ 18 n). epos 3 315 is protected by the metre, and is sus¬
tained by the oblique cases epco and epov (§ 18 e), but the
Attic epcos has supplanted it in T 442, 3 294, where a con¬
sonant follows.

VOWELS AND VOWEL CHANGES.

§ 5. a. 97 is regularly used for «, as cvyopp, bgoirj ; except
in 6ed goddess , Xao9 } people, and some proper names (as
Alveias , N avcnicda, § 4 f^). Occasionally, as B 370, gdv is
found instead of the less frequent gyjv (the strong form of
pcev). aXro A 532 (from dXXogac) is another instance of d,
unless it is to be written aXro.

38

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 5, b.

1). Sometimes, especially in abstract nouns, rj represents
Attic a, as evi rXotrjv I 362, aXrjQeirjv i) 297.

c. The final d of the stem is retained in the genitive end¬
ings -do and -dcov of the 1st declension, as ’ ArpeiSao A 203.

d. do is often changed to eco by transfer of quantity :
’A rpeiSao, ’A rpeiSeco. Cf. /3aai\r)o<; with Attic /SaatXeeo?.
But the frequent Xao? never has the Attic form Xed>?.

e. Compensative lengthening is sometimes found where
it is not in Attic, as feAo? (JeVfo?), eive/ca (Lesbian eWe-
kcl ), fcovpr/ (rcopfa), fiovvos, ovpos (opfof), hovpos. It is
omitted in fioXercu A 319 (/3odXeTO;t, Aeolic fioWercu, cf. /3eX -
t lov) ; and in three compounds of 7rod? (7 rod-), as deXAo7ro?

0 409.

A vowel seems to have been borrowed from the following
syllable in xeiP from a stem x6PL~> anc^ 'ITOl’Xv^

(Attic 770X^9, § 20 ff

f. Diphthongs occasionally preserve t where it is lost in
Attic before a vowel: ate/, aierbs, e’reAetero (§ 29 if olvo/3a-
peloov, oXocrj, irvoup, ypdcreto?. Cf. cucovi 'j with Attic d/corj.

g. But t is lost before a vowel in wtcea (cd/ceta) Bpt? B 786,
AtVea? N 541 (AtVeta?, cf. /cpeioov with the proper names KpeW
and Kpeoucra), in -00 for -oto as genitive-ending of the 2d
declension (§ 17 c) and in e’/xe'o for ep-eto, etc. (§ 24 e) ; cf.
piolp oXop <f> 83 with 0X0 t) piotpa X 5, yymcretot? A 246 with
Xpccew A 15. With these examples may be compared Attic
7 roelv ( ttolglv ), eXda (e’Xata). As in Attic, the penult is some¬

times short in 0/09 (as A 489, A 473) and oto? (as 77 312,
X 105). Cf. eparalov v 379, ^a/mtewdSe? k 243.

Cf. also the loss of v in Xoe k 361 (eXooe), ex^av % 347
(eyeoaz^), ciXeacrOe S 774 (dXedao"de), vpecrcn from vrjvs, {3acri -
Xfio? from ySaatXeu?, T udeo? from Toded?. See § 41 0. Cf.
ppcoos £ 303.

li. ercLLpos (erap-ios') is not a dialectic variation of erapos
but is derived from it as AtVedXto? A 399 from AtrcoXo? A 527,

'iravvvx^o^ cl 443 from 'rrdvwxos T' 218. Cf. § 19 b.

§ 7, a.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

39

§ 6. Contraction, a. Concurrent vowels generally re¬
main uncontracted: ae/cwv, dXyea, irtus (in nominative and
vocative singular), 67? (o/rt? = ovis, ewe). Attic ev is regu¬
larly ev before two consonants and the adjective is always
evs or ?}u?. Patronymics from nouns in -eu? form -et8r)<?,
-etcov, as ’A Tp€L&7]<; A 7, TLrjXetcova A 197.

b. When contraction occurs, it follows the ordinary rules,
except that eo and eov generally give ev: Odpcrevs P 578, Oe-
pevs 7] 118, (friXevvTcv ? y 221 ; but irovToiropovarjs X 11, ogov-
pLcu A 233.

c. ea are very rarely contracted into g, as T v8rj A 384
(TuSea), dicpai ) (3 421, alvoiraOr) cr 201.

(1. 7je are contracted into in ngrjs I 605 ( jiggei ?), nggyra
A 475, re^vgcraat rj 110 (re^y^ecraai) .

e. lcl are contracted into t in dtcoins k 7 Qatcoinas). l and
e are contracted in [pa, as B 420, and in li pyxes, as e 66.

f. oe are contracted into ov in Xcorovvra M 283.

g\ or) are contracted into co in err t [3 doer o gat, as a 378, 6y8do-
Kovra B 568.

li. The optative-sign l is sometimes lost in a preceding v

(§ 28 6).

i. It is probable that in the original form of the Homeric
poems many vowels were uncontracted which are contracted
in the Mss. and ordinary editions. The oi of kolXos can be
pronounced as two syllables 67 times out of 68 385 being

the exception). So al8oios may generally be al8o'ios, and
Oelos may be Oetos ( cf . § 4 c). The et of ' Apyeios may always
form two syllables. The evidence of rhythm and etymology
indicates Xoeaev rather than Xovaev. See §§ 18 l, 29 g.

§ 7. Synizesis. a. Vowels which do not form a true diph¬
thong may be blended in pronunciation into one long sound:
’A rpeihew w w , 6eoei8ea T 27, 8) avre A 340, rj ovk diets

a 298, gt) aXkoi 8 165, irokios B 811, Alyvirriovs 8 83, T erri-
atav B 537 (in which last three examples t must have had

40

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 7, 6.

very nearly the pronunciation of its cognate y-sound, §§ 5 77,
41 o y, as omnia is often disyllabic in Vergil), co dpiyvwre p 875.

'w'

The genitives in -eco are always pronounced with synizesis
(§ 16 <?), as also pgecov and vgecov and regularly Jjgeas, crtyeas,
and the genitive plural in -ecov (§ 16 cT). %peco is always a
monosvllable.

1). Synizesis often served the purpose of the later contrac¬
tion : pgewv did not differ in metrical quantity from ggwv.
It enabled the poet in certain cases to escape the combi¬
nation _ w _ ( [amphimacer ) which cannot be received un¬
changed into dactylic verse (§ 41 a').

c. Contraction and synizesis were employed in the last
foot of the verse more freely than elsewhere.

cl. It is probable that in the original form of the poems
synizesis was not so common as in our texts; e.g. instead of
Thfkrjuiheo) ’AycX/^o? A 1, YlrfkrjidBa kt\. may have been

spoken. For vglv gev 6eol Botev A 18, vggt 6eol gev kt\. has

been conjectured, and ’Ez waXtw /3poro(f)6vTrj for ’E vvaXuo dv-

Bpeityovrr) B 651. For BevBpew etye^ogevot T 152, the Alex¬
andrian scholar Zenodotus read BevBpet ktX. (cf. the Attic
plural BevBpeat). For II pXelBrj e6eX' A 277, probably TLgXetBr]

6eX' should be read, although the poet elsewhere uses eOeXco
not OeXco.

§ 8. Crasis is not frequent. It is most common in com¬
pounds with 7r po, as 7 rpovc^acve t 145, n rpov^ovro y 8, which
however may be written i rpoecfyatve, irpoeyovTO a :tX. Note
also rovve/ca A 291, coptaro^ O 384 (o apccrro?), govtos E 396,
raWa y 462, ^rjget^ B 238 (/cal ?;yaet?), ovgos 0 360.

§ 9. Hiatus is allowed

a. After the vowels t and i/, as ey^et ogvoevrc E 50, re? Be
(TV €(7(7 i Z 123.

b. When the two vowels between which it occurs are sep-

§ 10, C.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

41

arated by a caesura (rcadr/crro eirtyvdpt^\raaa A 569) or by a
diaeresis (§ 40 It) : seldom (54 times) after the first foot
(. avrap 6 eyvw A 338), more frequently (96 times) after the
fourth foot (ey^ea o^voevra E 568). This hiatus after the
fourth foot is more frequent in the Odyssey than in the Iliad.
Hiatus between the short syllables of the third foot is al¬
lowed nearly as frequently as in all other places together,
more than 200 times. This freedom of hiatus emphasizes
the prominence of this caesura, §§ 10 e , 40 d .

c. When the final vowel of the first word is long and
stands in the accented part of the foot (§ 39 c), as tw ae
fcatcr) alar] A 418. See § 41 o £.

d. When a long vowel or diphthong loses part of its quan¬
tity before the following vowel (§ 41 o), as ttjv K iyco ov
\vaco A 29, fjii] vv rot ov ^pala/iy A 28. Here the final and
initial vowels may be said to be blended. This is called
weak or improper hiafus; it is essentially the same as the
following.

e. When the last vowel of the first word is already elided,
as ptvpt ’Ayatot? a\ye eOrjicev A 2. See § 10 e.

f. Hiatus before words which formerly began with a con¬
sonant (§§ 12 l, 14) is only apparent.

g. The poet did not avoid two or more concurrent vowels
in the same word, § 6. But these vowels all seem to have
become concurrent on Greek soil by the loss of consonants.

§ 10. Elision, a. d (in inflectional endings and in dpa
and pa), e, l, o may be elided, at is sometimes elided in the
verb endings -ptat, -aat (except in the infinitive), -rat, -aOat,
and once in o^eiat A 2T2. ot is elided seven times in pot,
three times in rot, once in aot A 1T0 (unless ovhe aot otco or
ov aot otco should be read there for ovSe a ’ otco).

b. to, 7 rpo, dvrt, rrept, rt, and the conjunction ort do not
suffer elision ; or is for ore (either the temporal conjunction
or the relative 6 with re affixed, § 24 q), r for re or rot.

c. t is seldom elided in the dative singular, where it seems
originally to have been long.

42

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 10, d.

d. Oxytone prepositions and conjunctions lose their accent
in elision ; other oxytones throw the acute accent upon the
preceding syllable: rear ap e^ero A 101, but \ei>K oarea
a 161, elp C ’O&vcrevs l 19.

e. Elision tends to unite the two words between which
it occurs; hence it is avoided at the caesura of the third
foot, where hiatus seems to be preferred to elision. Hence,
also, the poet does not avoid the hiatus which sometimes
remains after elision, §9 e, g.

f. Elision is not left to the reader as in Latin poetry. In
the best Ms. of the Iliad (Ven. A), the elided vowel was
sometimes written over the preceding consonant, and where
the elided vowel bore the accent, a grave accent was placed
over the preceding vowel.

§ 11. Apocope, a. Before a consonant, the short final
vowel of apa and of the prepositions dvd, Kara, irapd, may
be cut off QdiroKoirip diroKorcrw). The accent is then thrown
back upon the preceding syllable (although it might be more
rational to consider it lost as it is in elision).

1». After apocope, the v of dvd and r of Kara follow the
usual rules for consonant changes : dyKpegacracra a 440, dgire-
rraXdov T 355, dXXe^ac 321 (^dvaXe^ad) , dy^rjpdvy 347
(^dva^Tjpdvrp), Kd/3j3a\€v E 343 (^KareftaXev) , KaS Se ( Kara Se)
frequently, KoXXore \ 279, KaKrave Z 164 ( KareKrave ), Kair-
rrecrerrjv E 560, Kappe^ovaa E 424, Kaaropvvcra p 32 ( Kara -
crropvvaa ), Kair fd\apa H 106.

c. diro suffers apocope in dTTTregyjrei o 83 ; cf. Latin ab.

d. vtto suffers apocope in v/3/3d\\€iv T 80 ; cf. Latin sub.

e. avepvaav A 459 is explained as derived by apocope, as¬
similation, and vocalization of p, from dvd and pepvw: dvf -
pvcrav, dpepvcrav, avepvaav, cf. Kavd^aus Hesiod Works 666
(^Karapa^aif). For this apocope cf. Kacr^eOe (^Karea^eOe) A
702, and dgvdaeL Pindar Pyth. IV 54 Qdvagv'pcrei) ; for the
vocalization of p, see § 14 j.

§ 12, «.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

43

f. Apocope was no mere metrical license ; it seems to
have been common in the conversational idiom of some dia¬
lects. A Megarian peasant is made to say (Aristophanes
Acharnians 732) ap(3aT€ iror tclv pdBBav for avd/3ar€ i tot l
(7 rpo?) rrjv pa^av, where the poet is certainly imitating the
manner of the common people, dpfibbcrcn ? (dvaftopcras') is
found in Herodotus I 8, apiravecrOcu Hdt. I 182, dpj3o\d8r)v
Hdt. iy 18 1. More striking examples of apocope and assimi¬
lation than any in Homer are found in prose inscriptions, as
dr rds for curb rfi?, It tol for €7TL TOU , 7TO/C KL for 7 TOTi KL
(7 rpo? Tt), irep rovvveovv (§ 24 ra) for 7 repl rcovBecov, in a Thes¬
salian inscription of 214 B.C., found at Larissa. Of. itot rov
6ebv kclt irdrpLCL BcSovrcov in a Delphian inscription of 380 B.C.
Apocoije was the rule in the Thessalian and Boeotian dia¬
lects.

CONSONANTS AND CONSONANT CHANGES.

§ 12. a. Where collateral forms appear, one with single
and the other with doubled consonants, the form with two
consonants is generally the older or justified etymologically,
as 7 rocrcTL, 7 toctl (from ttoB-ctl) , veiKecrcre, veiKeae (yelKos, vec-
/cecr-), 07T7T&)? (o/c/rco?, cf. Latin quis etc .), ottl, kt\.

b. Single initial consonants, especially X, p,, v , p, cr, are
often doubled (as p is in Attic) when by inflexion or compo¬
sition a short vowel is brought before them (see § 41/ a), as
iWiacrero Z 45, eppaOov, ivvvrjro 9, ecrcrvo, 07r7rco?, ottl.

c. But sometimes p is not doubled where it would be in
Attic, as epe^a 8 352 (§ 25 p), dpeKTOv T 150, coKvpow E 598,
OvpopaicrTewv 2 220.

d. Palatal and lingual mutes often remain unchanged be¬
fore p, as aKa^pevos, bhprjv, tBpev, KeKopvO ptvos.

e. Lingual mutes are commonly assimilated to a following
c, as 7 roaal (ttoB-ctl). a is sometimes assimilated to p or vi
eppevai ( elvcu ) for ia-pevaL, evveire a 1 tell for ev-aeire (Lat.

44

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 12,/

insece ), apyevvos ivliite for dpyea-vos, as dpyevvdwv F 19*, ev-
vvyi for feor-vvyi (§ 14 a) cf. ecrcra S 253, ipavvpv r\ 18 lovely ,
ipe(3evvp E 659 dark , cf. ’Epe/3o9. (7/ the aorist ocfoeXXeie v

(3 334 for btyeXcreiev. See §4/*.

f. cr is frequently retained before cr, as eacroyai, ereXecrae.

g. Between y and X or p, (3 is sometimes developed (cf.
the Attic yeapy^pia from year/ pyepa, and chamber with Latin
camera ), as ay(3poros from stem ypo or yop (Latin mors ,
morior ), while in (3poros mortal and vv% d/3p6r7] E 78, the y
of the stem is lost; yey/3X(OKe from yXo or yoX (cf. eyoXov),
while in 7 rpoftXdocnceLv cfo 239, the y of the stem is lost; yey-
(3Xero <f> 516 from yeXco l 20 ; py(3porov II 336 (cf. ayapre
£ 116 and d(3pord^oyev K 65).

li. tcdy(3aXe is found occasionally, as £172, in the Mss. as
a variant reading, a softer pronunciation for rcdf3/3aX€ (§ 11 b ).

i. A parasitic r appears in 7TTo\t?} TTToXeyos for 7 roXi?, 7 ro-
Xeyos. Of. St^Od, Tpiyfd with Attic (olya, rplya, — y 6aya -
Xos (humilis) with yayai (humi). The form 7 ttoXls is found
-in Thessalian and Cyprian inscriptions, and was also Arca¬
dian. The proper names Neoytolemus (NeoTTroAe/xo?) and
Ptolemy (Hr oXe yaws') preserved this t to a late period.
TA?77 rroXeyos is found in an ancient Boeotian inscription ; in
this word r could not have been inserted metri causa.

j. Certain words were losing their initial consonants in
the Homeric age: cf. yucpos y 296 with cryucpfjcn P 757, ves
o 556 with avs t 439, tcehacrOevres B 398 with a/ceSacrev P 649,
£ vviovTes A 446 with avvLTrjv Z 120, hovirricrev A 504 with
iyhovTrrjcrav A 45 and epihovir(p y 399 with epiyhoviros H 411.

k. For y see § 14.

1. Yod (j pronounced as y) occasionally retains the force
of a consonant in irjyi (§ 25 h) and generally (37 times) in
postpositive cos i.e.jcos (§ 41 m), which seldom leaves the pre¬
ceding syllable short. The constant position of cos after the
noun which it qualifies marks the lengthening as a relic of
an earlier age. But perhaps this postpositive w? was fcos .

§ 14, a.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

45

m. The rough breathing (Ji) has no power to prevent eli¬
sion or weaken hiatus. The smooth breathing is found with
several words which have the rough breathing in Attic, as
agges (fgelf), r/gap ( ijgkpa ), aXro (from aWogac ), ?;eXto?
(r/A .lof), ’A1S77? (vA lStjs'), i)d>$ (ect)?). See § 4 f.

n. The v movable was written by some ancient critics ( e.g .
Aristarchus) after the ending -ec of the pluperfect, as /3e/3\ g-
fC€LV E 661, gvcoyetv Z 170; cf. igcnceiv T 388 (J)cnceev). It is
freely used before consonants to make a syllable long by
position (§41 It).

o. The final cr of adverbs is omitted more often than in
prose ; not merely ef and etc, ourco? and ovrco, but also i rco?
and 7 too, 'ttoWcucls and 7 roWdtcL (and similar adverbs in -/a?,
even with elision, rocrcrd y’ vScop aTroXecrtcer X 586), drpegas
and drpega, gecrcrgyv 9 and getragyv, ge^pcs and ge^pc, a^pi<;
and a^pi, agents and dgf>L (adverbial), are found as collateral
forms.

§ 13. Metathesis of a and p is frequent : tcapSig B 452,
fcpaSlr] a 353 ; Odpcros a 321, Opdcros (once) 3 416 (while the
adjective is always Opacrvf) ; redpros S 415 (/ cdpnaroL A 266),
tepdro? A 509. Cf. eSpatcov from Sep/cogao, eSpadov from Sap-
6dvw, ejrpaOov from 7 repOw, rpaireiogev T 441 from repirw,
Tepirucepavvo 9 from rpeirw.

For the shifting of quantity from -do to -eco, see § 5 d.

§ 14. The Digamma, a. The following words seem to
have been pronounced by the Homeric poet more or less
consistently with initial digamma ( van , f, pronounced as
English w) : —

ayvvgL break, as E 161 ; cf. (.a fa, da yeg X 575.

aXi9 enough , as v 136, B 90.

aXwvat be captured , as M 172; cf. eTw, Aeolic evdXaiKev (see
j below). Also etXco press, as II 403, from the same root.

avaf king, as A 7 and often.

avSavu) please, as /3 114 ; cf. eaSov and iyvSave [caj/Save] y 143.

46

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 14, a.

apaios thin , as % 411.
apvos lamb, as A 158.
aa-Tv city , as T 245 and often.

e, ou, ot 7iim etc ., as A 510, with the possessive pronoun os, y, ov
(eo's kt/\.) ; see h below.

cap Spring , as r 519 ; c/. Latin ver.

eSi/a wedding -gifts, as X 472, perhaps from the same root as
dvSdvo).

Wvos tribe , as £ 73.

eiKocn twenty , as B 510 ; c/. Latin viginti.

ctKto yield, as £7 roeiKew Y 266 ; c/. English iveak, weaken.

etpoo say, future epeco, as A 182 ; c/. Latin ver-bum , English word.

£K as jfar, as E 791 ; c/*. peXrrovres eiedepyov A 474.

eKao'ros each, as B 449.

cKvpos father-in-law, as T 172; c/. German Schwiegervciter.
eKiov willing, as Z 523 ; c/i aeKcov, ae/ayri, deKa^opievos.
eXf winding, as a 92.

eXrris, eXrro pat, hope, as 7 r 101 ; c/*. eoXrra, deXrrTeovres.
evvvpn (fea-vvp, t) , iaOt'js, elpara, clothes, as T 392; c/*. Latin
vestis.

eVos word, as A 652 ; c/*. eeurov ft- p error, § 25 7i), and of with

Latin vox.

epyov, epbo) work, as B 436 ; cf. the English word.

ipvd), eppo), draw, go, as 8 367 I cf. dr rdepae.

earrepo s evening, as p 191 ; cf. Latin vesper.

ero s year, as a 16 ; cf. Latin vetus.

eij six, as E 270.

err] s companion, as H 295.

t)8v<s sweet , as A 17 ; cf. dvSdvu) and Latin suacleo, suavis ( sucul -
vis) .

yOos haunt, as £ 411 ; cf. eTmOe.
id^o) cry aloud as 8 454 ; cf. j below.

ISetv see, as A 262 ; also 618a, eT8os. Cf. Latin video, English wit.

LeeXos, eoLKo. am like , as A 119.

lov violet, as € 72 ; cf. Latin viola.

is, Tfi strength, sinew, as 4' 191 ; cf. Latin vis.

Taos equal, as A 163 ; cf. eiaos.

§ 14, e.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

47

t tvs felly, as A 486 ; cf. English witlie.

oLcos house , as a 232 ; c/. Latin vicus , English TFa?*-w?cfc, Rer-
icick, etc.

otvos wine, as r 300 ; c/. Latin vinum and the English word.

b. It is probable that ypa (£7 rl rjpa (f^epcov A 572), ’4Mo?,
and Hpt? also were pronounced with initial f.

c. dvSavw, e, e/cvpos, ef and others seem to have begun
originally with two consonants, ap.

d. The verse alone affords no sufficient criterion for the
former existence of p in any word ; it only indicates the loss
of some consonant. This is not conclusive evidence for p,
since a and j (y) were also lost. Which consonant origi¬
nally was present has to be learned in each case from inscrip¬
tions of other Greek dialects, from a few notes of ancient
grammarians, and from other cognate languages (cf, epyov
work, ohos wine).

Rem. The Alexandrian scholars did not know of the existence
of p in the Homeric language, and consequently they did not use
it to explain peculiarities in the Homeric text. The great English
scholar Richard Bentley (1662-1742) was the first to discover that
its restoration removed many difficulties of Homeric prosody.

e. The sound of p evidently was going out of use in the
Homeric period ; it is not infrequently neglected in our
texts and sometimes this neglect seems to be due to the poet
himself, but p can be restored in many passages by minor
changes : /ceSva iSvia (ptSvla) has been restored for the Ms.
reading /ceSv eiSvla a 428. For vlov e/cr)/3o\ov A 21 it is pos¬
sible to read via pe/crj/36Xov, for ?}/3?/cr?7 re teal rjs /crX. a 41 it
is easy to read r)/3ricrr) real pr)s, and rracnv Se pavdacrecv for
7 rdvreaai 8’ dvdcraeiv A 288. For eirraeres S’ ipvaacre y 304,
eirraeres S' edvacrcre may be read (§ 25 i ). pevos 6vpov re
pe/cacrrov may have been jthe original form of pevo? /cal Ovpov
e/ederrov E 470. avrovs Se eXcopca A 4 became avrovs S' e\Xd>-
pta in many Mss. oi pev olvov a 110 is now read where the

48

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 14,/

Mss. have ol pe v ap ’ olvov. As the Alexandrian grammarians
and the copyists had no knowledge of this lost letter in
Homer, they were solicitous to fill each hiatus b}r a v mova¬
ble, p (pa), r (re), y (ye), or whatever other addition or
change suggested itself, ov av y dyecs p 576 is jirobably
for ov crv f (/e) ayet^, and 09 a^ei H 154 for 09 y’ d£et
(§ 41 q).

f. y was less constantly preserved in derivative than in
primitive words : olvos generally retains its y, but Olvoyaos
E 706 has lost it; dpvos preserves its y four times, but dpveios
shows no trace of it.

g-. It has been computed that y in Homer assists in mak¬
ing position 359 times (only in the accented part of the foot
or else before the third personal pronoun — before ev once,
before the enclitic ol 39 times), but prevents hiatus 2995
times (2324 of which are after a short syllable, in the unac¬
cented part of the foot). The force of y is neglected about
600 times in ordinary texts (about half of which passages
can be readily changed to restore y).

li. In later poets, e.g. in the elegiac poets and Pindar, y
seems never to make position but often prevents hiatus, —
poetic precedent allowing hiatus before a word which for¬
merly began with y. The consciousness of the consonantal
initial sound of ol was retained longest and most clearly.
Before that word, 110 attempt was made to fill a hiatus by v
movable or by ody for on, and before it a short vowel was
often long by position (§ 41 m').

i. That the sound of y was still alive in the Homeric age
is shown by the accuracy of the poet in its use where com¬
parative philology shows that it once existed.

j. y sometimes leaves a trace of its existence in its cognate
vowel v : evahev H 340 for efaSev, avepvaav A 459 for dpepv-
aav (§ 11 e), aviayoi N 41 for dpia^oi (a privative and yta-
^7;), raXavpivov E 289 for raXd- fptvov. So doubtless dirovpas
A 356 for diro-ppas. Of. the Pindaric avdrav, Pyth. 11 28,

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

49

§ 15, a.]

for afarav , and evcSov Sappho II 7 for efc&ov. This latter
evtSov may have been pronounced often where our Homeric
texts have eiacSov, as eacSev seems not infrequently to have
been substituted for efi8e v.

Some irregularities of quantity may be explained by this
vocalization of p. Thus dir dear dv T 35 may have been diro-
penroov pronounced nearly as dirovearcov. aviayoi finds its
analogy in y ever 5 layf) A 456 (jyeveroviayrf) .

k. A neighboring vowel is sometimes lengthened to com¬
pensate for the loss of p (§ 41 d').

l. An e was sometimes prefixed to a digammated word and
remained after the p was lost, as eeXScop, eel/cocn, eepyet, ee.

m. Sometimes the rough breathing represents the last

remnant of a lost consonant (especially in the words which
once began with o-/r, as dvSavco kt\., cf. c above), as e/cco v,
eWepo?. Often the same root varies in breathing, as dvSavco
and but — evvv/u , but eaOrf.

n. For the augment and reduplication of digammated
verbs, see § 25 h.

o. For SpecSco, hprjv, see § 41, j /3.

DECLENSION.

§ 15. Special Case Endings, a. The suffix -(fn(y), a
remnant of an old instrumental case, added to the stem forms
a genitive and dative in both singular and plural. It is gen¬
erally used as an instrumental, ablative, or locative case.
The suffix is most frequent in set expressions and in the last
two feet of the verse.

1st Declension, always singular : ef evvfjfav from the couch ,
with his own might, dvprjcfn at the door.

2d Declension : etc irovro^nv out of the sea , haicpvcxfu ivith
tears , err evy^apofiv on the hearth. The final o of the stem
always receives the acute accent.

3d Declension, only with a stems except vavcju, and tcorv-
\7]8ovo(fn (which has gone over into the 2d declension), and

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

50

[§ 15, b.

always plural except Kpdreacfn K 156: Ik argOea^iv from the
breasts , opeacfyiv on the mountains .

b. Many of these forms are found only where they are
convenient for the verse ; e.g. vaiufri always stands for vgcov,
not for vrjvcrl which has the same metrical form as vavtyi.

c. This ending is not used with designations of persons,
except avrocfu T 255, T 140, 6e6(f)Lv as H 366.

d. The suffix -9l is added to the stem to denote place
where : 6vpg6i at the door , o'ljcoOl at home , KgpoOo at heart , ttoOl
where , kcWl there (i/cei is not Homeric), i)m9l in the morning.

e. The suffix -6e v is added to the stem to denote place
whence : 'IBgOev from Ida , ovpavoOev from heaven. It forms
a genitive with the pronominal stems ege, ae, e, auro : igedev,
aeOev, e6ev, avroOev. Sometimes a preposition is used with
it, as a\o6ev d> 335, drrb T poigOev t 38, eQev eive/ca T 128,
7 rpo e6ev E 96. When affixed to adverbial stems, it may lose
its final v : oirLaOe, civevOe, TrdpoiOe, evepOe.

f. This ending -6ev has lost its original force in certain
adverbs ; €’771;?, e’77 v0l, eyyvOev do not differ essentially in
meaning; cf. evBov, evBoOi, evBoOev, — 7 rpoaOev, oiricrOev, kt\.
The Aeolic form of the ending appears in viratOa <$> 493 from
under.

g\ The enclitic -Be is added to the accusative to denote
more distinctly the limit of motion : ol/covBe homeward (also
oi/ca&e, especially of the return of the Achaeans to their
homes) ovBe BogovBe to his own house, dXaBe seaward, k\l-
algvBe to the tent , T poigvBe to Troy. So also ’A iBocrBe to the
abode of Hades ; cf. ggerepovBe ( sc . Bcoga) to our house, ei$
’AiSao. With TlgXeuovdBe Q 338, cf. eis ’ Ayagegvova H 312.
Cf. in oKAvBls, dgvBns, ^agaSis, -£e in epa^e to the earth,
dvpa^e, yaga^e. (fivyaBe to flight (for (fivyrjvBe which is not
used) is formed as from a noun of the third declension.

§ 16. First Declension, a. rj is found for final a of
the stem with the exceptions mentioned in § 5 a f.

§ 17, c.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

51

b. The nominative singular of some masculines ends in
-rd for -T7] 9 : al^grjTa spearman, gr/rlera counsellor . Cf. the
Latin poeta, nauta. evpvoira far- sounding (perhaps a petrified
nominative) is used also as accusative, e.g. A 498.

All of these words are adjectival ( titular ) except Svecrra

B 107.

c. The genitive singular of masculines ends in -do or (by
transfer of quantity, § 5 c?), -eco. After a vowel this ending
may be contracted to -co : evggeXlco A 47, Alvelco E 584, B opeco
"T 692. The ending -eco is always pronounced as one syllable
by synizesis (§ 7).

d. The genitive plural ends in -awv or - ewv : Oeacov, /3ov-
Xecov. After i this ending may be contracted, as n rapecwv II
794. After a long syllable (i.e. everywhere except in 7 rvXecov
H 1, M 840, and Ovpecov <£ 191) synizesis of -ecov occurs, as
vavrecov.

e. The dative plural ends in -gcrcQu') or rarely in -779, as
OvprjcrLv, 7reTpr)s, — in -ai 9 only in three words : deals e 119
(cf. 6ea § 5 a), d/crals M 284, it derail % 471.

f. The short form of this dative ending is rarely used
before a consonant; when it stands before a vowel, it may
be said that the final l has been elided.

§ 17. Second Declension, a. The genitive singular
has preserved the old ending -to which affixed to the stem
vowel makes -010.

b. According to tradition this ending does not suffer eli¬
sion; but elision is metrically possible, e.g. hvaogevov 'Tirepl-
ovos a 24 might be Svaogevoc 'TvrepLovos. See § 7 d.

c. The termination -00 is indicated by the metre in certain
places where all the Mss. give a corrupt form : o^LreXecrrov
00 /cXeos ov 7 tot oXelrcu B 325, TloXvcfrrigov 60 /cpdros icrrl ge-
yiarov a 70, d&eXcpeoo efrpevas r/pcos H 120, TXtoo irpoirdpoide
X 6, A I0X00 geyaXijropos k 36. It is to be recognized also
in IleTewo B 552 for Ileredoo, from IleTC&A for IIeTedo9. It

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 17, d.

was probably far more common in the original form of the
poems ; e.g. 'OAvgv riov dOpooc a 27 might be ’ OXygirco ’ ddpooi.

The Attic ending -ov is more common in the received
texts.

For the loss of c in the change from -oto to oo, see § 5 g.

d. The genitive and dative dual end in -ouv : toIlv, cogouv.

e. The dative plural ends in -outl(v) or -ots. As in the
first declension (§ 16/) the long ending is the rule, the short
ending is very rare before a consonant.

f. 7 aXoto X 473 (nom. pi.), ’A 6oco 8 229 (gen. sing.), and
K owv 8 255 (acc. sing.) belong to the so-called Attic Second
Declension. But Homer uses Xao9, ^7709, /caXo9, Aaycoos for
Xeoo9, re&>9, ktA.

§ 18. Third Declension, a. The ending 1 of the dative
singular is sometimes long, as in Latin, and sometimes short.
It is seldom elided. It is often long before a single conso¬
nant, as KvpcrTL %a\rc€Ly A 640, gi)Ti S’ pvioyos "T 318 ; it is
always long in Su<£tXo9, A Cl ggrcv drdAavro<;, cf. virepgevel
c plAov B 116, Kpdrec ge H 142. So before words which once
began with p, as dvSpl bceAr/ A 86, retcei c6 S 175 ; cf. Ad co 9
B 781 (§ 12 V). It preserves its length before a vowel in
ev $67 tcll ocppa D 285.

b. The genitive and dative dual are very rare ; perhaps
only TTohouv "T 770, A eiprjvoav g 52, 167.

c. The dative plural has the Aeolic ending -ecrai(v') as well
as the Attic -<xt(F) : iroheacn, ttoctctl (§ 12 e), ttoctl, — /3eXe-
ecrcTi (for fiekecr-ecrcrC), (3eAecrcri, fieAecn, — dvSpecrcn, dvhpdai , —
Ovyarepeacn (Attic OvgarpdcrC), — /cAaiovrecrcTi (Attic kAcll-
oucrt), — Kvv€o-<ji, kvctl. aireacTL from ct7T609 is irregular; it
can be written everywhere cnreecn. Sometimes -crat is used
after a vowel, vefcvcrcn as well as veKvecrai. As the examples
show, sometimes one a is dropped, but -eat for -ecrcn (as
dvdtcrecnv o 557) is not frequent. The forms in -eaai are
always accented on the antepenult. *

§ IB, *.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

53

d. Forms with -ecrat have replaced occasionally in the
Mss. forms with -cri, as OeXyeatc iireeacriv y 264 for deXyea/ce
peireacnv (§ 14 a, e ), dyavols /3eXeecrcnv y 280 for ay avoid i
fteXecrcnv (§ IT e ).

e. yeXcos, 6p&)9, t8pcos have no stems with t, but form dat.
yeXcp, 6/363, t8pw, acc. yeXco (or yeXov), epov, i8pco. y^p 039 has
^/3009, X/300 %/3oa, but also ^pcoros K 5T5, xpoifj S 164, ^ptora
a 172.

f. 70m), Secrpios, 86 pv, adpr\, ov 9 (which probably should be
written oa9, from oua 9), irpoacoirov all have forms from r-
stems : yovvaros (70137/09 A 547, t 450), yovvacri , 8eo-pLara, 806-
paros, 8ovpan, 8ovpara, 8ovpacn ktX. fccipr/ has four sets of
inflexions: (1) fcdprjTO 9, /cdpr/n, — (2) aapijaros, Kapyjart, aa-
ppara, — (3) tcpdaros, apaan, /cpdara, — • (4) aparos, apart,
fcpara, aparcov, apacrtv. apyjOev is used as its genitive IT 548,
adp as accusative singular II 392. All the oblique cases of
ov 9 are formed from the stem ovar-, except coo-tv pi 200.

it p 6 cr coir ov has irpocrcoirara a 192, irpocrcoiracrL H 212.

g. Several stems in -l8 form the accusative singular in-a ;
yXav/cd>m8a 0 373, yXav avoir lv a 156 ; civdXai8a 0 153, dvaX-
atv 7 375, epi8a E 861, eptv 7 136. Of. puianya E 226, piderrev
o 182, Attic opvtOa, opviv.

h. Nouns in -7 jp have both syncopated and unsyncopated
. forms : irarpos, irarepos (irarpoov 8 687), dv8pos, dvepos.

i. Nouns in -09 and -<*9 generally remain uncontracted.
-609 is rarely contracted to -609, as Odpcrev 9 P 573 (’O&no-efc
co 398). Of. cucparj Qdapaea) /3 421, A Lopu'fea A 365.

j. The a of a few stems in -as is weakened to e : ov8eos,
ov8€l from ov8as, acoecnv from acoas fleece. In the plural the
final a is short in yepa, as B 237.

k. F orms of aXeos and adjectives in -aXr/s are contracted
in the Mss. : aXea dv8pcov I 189, evaXelas K 281, 8vcraXea
B 115, daXea 8 728; cf. virep8ea P 330.

l. It is probable that the true reading is aXee dv8pcov (the
trisyllabic can everywhere be substituted for the anomalous
disyllabic form), 8vaaXee Apyos , daXee etc pueydipcov.

54

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 18, m.

m. Proper names compounded with /eXeo9 are inflected
thus: N. f3lrj 'Hpa/c\7]€L7] (periphrasis for 'Iripa/cXerjs which is
metrically impossible, § 2 $), G. 'Hpa/cA^o?, D. H pa/cXip, A.
'H pa/cXrja.

n. Probably the 77 or eu of the nouns in -09 and -a? should
be resolved : anrelovs may always be written cr7reeo9, an rpeaai
may be anreeeaai ( anreea-eaai , see c above), Belovs may be
Seeos, evppelos may be evppeeos, fcpeioov may be /cpedcov, dya-
/cXrjos may be dyarcXieos, dtcXelccs may be dicXeews, H pafcXrys
may always be 'HparcXeeos, etc. See § 6 i.

o. Nouns in -00 and -cos are contracted in the Mss. This
may be a conformation to Attic usage. Generally it is pos¬
sible, and often it is rhythmically better, to write e.g. goa Slav
rather than 7)6) Slav (§ 39/).

p. Nouns in -is and -u? usually retain t or v throughout,
but in its stead may insert e which is sometimes lengthened.

q. 7 roXt? is inflected thus : nroXios, n roXrjos, 7 roXet, nroXirji
r 50, nroXiv, 7 roTue?, n-oXrjes, 7 roXlcov nroXleaai, nroXias, nroXr/as
(p 486), 7roXet9*

r. Nouns in -evs generally lengthen e to 77 in compensation
(§ 41 d') for the v which between two vowels becomes p and
is lost, as /3aaiXevs, ftaaiXrjos. Forms with e are found in
proper names : Tu8eo9 B 406, T vBea Z 222, 'OBvaevs co 398
(once) for 'OBvaeos-

s. 17771)9 (Attic vav 9) is inflected thus : 777709, veos, vr\i , vrja
(yea only 1 283 and doubtful), vrjes, vies, vrjcov, vecov, vav<f>i,
vijeaai, veeaai, vrjval , vr/as, via 9. The forms with 77 are the
most frequent.

t. vAp779 has ,;Ap77 and ''Apijv (E 909) of the first declen¬
sion ; and ''Aprjos, ’A pgi, ” Aprja as from ’'Ape 09 (the Lesbian
form of 5'Ap779, cf. the Attic genitive ’Apeo^). With these
latter forms may be compared conversely the dialectic col¬
lateral forms in -779 of Epic proper names in -6179, as ''Opcfrrjs
(’Opc^eiA), T 1)877 9 (TuSeiA), from which were borrowed the
Latin Ulixes , Achilles , etc.

§ 19,/]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

55

ANOMALOUS FORMS.

§ 19. a. As verbs appear in the present system with a
variety of collateral forms derived from the same root (cf.
Ilk co, iKavco, CKveofiat, — irevOopLac, irwOdvopiai, — p,evco, pilp^vco,
/jufiva^w^), so nouns of different declensions are sometimes
formed from the same root and are used without appreciable
difference of meaning.

b. Some nouns have both vowel and consonant stems :
d\K7j r 45, but oXkl E 299 ; acrrpa © 555, but dcrrrjp Z 295 ;
ydcrrpjjv S 348, but yaar/jp £ 133 ; ey^ecrj H 261, but

H 254; ipiTjpos eralpo ? A 266, but epirjpes eralpoc F 378;
r)VLo^o<; A 280, but rjvLO'xfjes E 505 ; Icokij E 740, but IwKa
A 601 ; (pvXaKovs O 566, but (f>v\aKas K 97 ; cf. Attic Trarpo-
(frovos with 7 rarpocf)ov7]a a 299, rrc^v8aKpvov P 192 (for which
however 7 roXvSaKpvos is conjectured) as genitive of 7roXu-
haKpvs (cf. 8aKpv6-€c< ; X 499) with iroXv8aKpvv T 132, 7 toXli)-
tcls B 806 with 7 roXcTcu Tj 131.

c. pLCLcrTL "T 500 and pidanv 0 182 are collateral with fid-
o-Tiyi E 748 and fidartya E 226; so also verbs are found
from both stems : pudane P 622, pudcrn^ev E 366.

d. Of u/09, three stems are found: (1) vios, vlov, vie. The

other forms of this declension are very rare ; vlov ^ 238, vl(p
IT 177. (2) vieos, vlei, vlea (only N 350 in Homer, frequent

in later poets) kt\ ., as if from vlv<; which occurs on Spartan
and Arcadian inscriptions, with vv$ on an early Athenian in¬
scription. (3) vlos, vie, via, vie, vle<;, vldcn, vlas, as from a
nominative vU.

In this word the first syllable is sometimes short (§ 5 <7),
as it often is in Attic and in other dialects.

e. So also some proper names have forms of both vowel
and consonant stems : XWLO'irrja^ A 423 and AWioiras a 23 ;
’Az m^arpa k 114 and ’A vri(f>dTr)<; o 243 ; TlarpoK\rjo<;, Tlarpo-
K\rja, YlarpoK\eis, as well as YldrpoK\os, TlarpoK\ov kt\.

f. ’AtS?;? has ’A i8ao, ’A ISeco, but also 'fAi8os, VA l8l as if

56

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 19, g.

from ’'At? (’At'8-). Of. Ol8i7r68ao A 271 with the Attic geni¬
tive OISl7toS-o ?. A collateral form of ’A 18779 is 'A'iBcovevs
T 61 with dative ’A iScovrjt, E 190.

g. Zeo? has Z 77^0?, Zrjvl, Zrjva, or, at end of the verse, Zrjv,
as well as A to?, A tt, A la.

li. ^ap7T7]Scov has 'Zap7T7)86vo<; II 464, liapirphovTos M 379.

i. /ceXevOo? and /cn/cAo? are sometimes neuter in the plural.
So vevpi] has vevpa A 122, irXevpp has i rXevpd A 468.

j. Certain names of cities are found in both singular and
plural: ’ AOijvrjv 77 80 but ’A Opvas B 546; M v/cyvr) A 52,
M vfcpvas B 569; Qr/pf) E 543, db ypa? I 151; ©77/^77? A 378,
©77 /2a? E 804. Cf. MdXeiav t 80, M aXeidoov y 287. Instead
of the later plural ©ecr7rtat, HXarcuai, Homer uses only the
singular : (deairecav B 498, TlXarcuav B 504.

ADJECTIVES.

§ 20. a. Some adjectives of three terminations are used
as if of two terminations, i.e. the masculine form is used also
for the feminine : lcf)6[gov^ A 3, /cAuro? rliriro8dpieia

B 742, dyptov arrjv T 88, oXocdtcltos o8gg 8 442 where oAoeo-
r cittj was metrically possible, rjepa ttovXvv E 776, 8€ivo$ ayrr)
O 626, dcrirctcnos yrj 233, Oeppub? dvrpip pu 369, n^Aoto 77 pia-
Ooevros B 77, i)Xr)evTL Za/cvv6(p a 246 but vXyecraa ZcucvvOos
1 24, aAo? iroXioio T 229 but dAo? TroXifjs 4? 59.

b. Compound adjectives, on the contrary, often have a
feminine form : d8pLrjrr), dOavdn 7, dpLcjneXiaarj, dpifyjXr], dcr(3e-
(jt 77, elvaXlr/, ev^ecrT 77, 7roXvgvr)crT7j, 7roXvcf)6pl3rj.

c. The feminine of adjectives in -o?, ends in -eui (gen.
-6^779), -ea (§ 5 p), or rer) (§ 5 b): ftaOela, fidGetr)?, — ooKea,
— / SaOerjs , {3a0er]v.

<1. enpn? has acc. sing. masc. evpea (in connection with
atoAtto? and 7 rwro?) as well as evpvv.

e. e’6? good has gen. sing. £>709, gen. plur. edcov. But for
67709, the Alexandrian critic Zenodotus wrote eolo (possessive
pronoun) which is perhaps a better reading.

§ 21, c.J

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

57

f. 7ro\v<; (ttovXvs) has in the masculine and neuter both
stems 7 roXv- (7 tovXv-) and 7roXXo- (for 7 toXvo-, § 19 «), with
a nearly complete set of forms for each : 7roXXo9 and 7 roXXov,
7roXeo9, 7ro\669j 7 roXecov, TToXecrcn, 7 roXecn, TroXeecrcn, rroXeas,
with all the Attic forms except ttoXXov.

g. nrpecrfivs has feminine irpecr^a (as from Trpecrfiosf irpo-
<f)po)v has feminine irpo^paaaa, Oovpos has feminine OovpA.

PATRONYMICS.

§ 21. a. Suffixes which originally expressed connection
or possession were used to form patronymic adjectives. The
original force of these suffixes is occasionally preserved :
( Oeol ) Ovpavicoves A 570 is a mere adjective of connection
like ( Oeolcnv ) eirovpavioicTi Z 129; Homer does not recognize
Ovpavos as the ancestor of the gods. 'QXvg7ria8e<; govcrac B
491 is equivalent to govcrai ’OX itgirca Scogar eyovaai B 484.

I>. The importance which the Homeric Greeks attached to
a son’s connection with his father is not only indicated by
the frequent use of patronymics as proper names (as ’A rpel-
Stjs A T, M evoLTiahr] A 307, before the names Agamemnon ,
Patroclus , had been mentioned), but is shown also by Iv 68 f.
where in great fear Agamemnon bids his brother to rouse
the warriors 7 rarpoOev etc yeveig ovoga^oov avhpa etcaarov \ irtiv-
t«9 Kvhaivcov, as in their great extremity before Syracuse
Nicias, encouraging the Athenians, roov rpirjpap-^wv eva etca-
crrov avetcaXeu, irarpoOev re ovoga^cov teal (ftvXrjv Thlic. YII 69.
When a stranger was asked who he was, he gave his own
name, that of his father and that of his country ; as a man’s
official name at Athens included that of his father and that
of his deme (7 rarpoOev teal rov 8pgov ov etcacrros ean to ovo-
ga) , e.g. Ar/gocrOevr 79 Ar/gocrOevovs YlaLavcevs Demosthenes , son
. of Demosthenes , a Paeanian.

A. c. The patronymic is formed from stems of the 1st
declension by adding -8a- : Wpyea8rjv n 417, Avy rjcaSao B
624, T7T7roTd£?79 tc 2, or more frequently by adding -ia8a- :

58

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 21, d.

AaepnaBrj^ F 200, ’ Ay^LcnaSrj^ 296, in which the final a of

the stem is lost.

d. This analogy, giving an ending in -Ld&rjs, is followed by
stems in -io of the 2d declension : M evoLrtdBrjs I 211. So
also by stems of the 3d declension : II gXrjidBeco A 1 (as well
as II rjXetSrjs S 316, II rjXetcova A 197), AaopeBovTidBgs O 527,
AlTjfcio-TTjid&Tjs Z 28, even ’O iXiaBrjs II 330 from ’CfiXeu?- See
j below.

e. The suffix -iBa- is added to stems in o, and the o is lost
as in d above: KpoviSgs, — also to stems in ev, which lose
their v between two vowels (§ 5 g) : ’A rpeLSgs A 7, — also to
consonantal stems, as ’A yagegvoviBrjs a 30. A evKaXcSgs (Aeu-
/caXlBao M 117) is formed as from A evrcaXos, instead of from
A ev/caXiwv, and ’ AvOeglBrj<; A 488 as from ,rA vOegos rather
than from 'AvOeglwv (’A vOegiwvo^ vlov A 473). Possibly
A ev/caXos was a short form of A evtcaXlcov, as a comrade of
Achilles is called sometimes ’A Xtagehafv (II 197, P 467), but
sometimes ’'AX/a/xo? (T 392, O 474), and AeufcoXocfros Aris¬
tophanes Frogs 1513 is the same person as Aeu/coXoc/uTb;?
Plato Protag. 315 e. Of. 'EpuvOevs (fLpuvdev A 39) for 'S.puvOo-
(pdopos and e/caros for e/caTr)/36Xos (§ 4 c).

f. Patronymics from stems in -ev, after the loss of the v,
do not in Homer suffer contraction of the e of the stem with
the l of the suffix. The poet says ’A rpetBrj^, ’A rpetcov, as
tetrasyllables not trisyllables. The verse ictus never falls on
the ei.

g. Female patronymics are formed by the suffix -i&- which
loses S before the nominative sign : XpvaglSa (acc. of Xpv-
arjlp) A 182, B puarjiha A 184, XrjpglSes S 38, daughters of
Kerens, TpaudBcov 2 122, daughters of Tros , A aphaviBxuv 12 122,
daughters of Dardanus, as the Trojans are called AapBarico-
ves H 414. ’A^au&e? B 235 corresponds to /covpoc ’A -^accov
A 473.

B. h. Patronymics are formed also by the suffix -too- ;
K P oviwv A 528 (with genitive IXpovtcovos or lApoviovos, cf.

§ 22, «.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

5$

§22 &), ’A Tpetwv, II gXetwv. In these last forms from nouns
in -eu? the i is always short.

i. The corresponding female patronymic is found in ’A Sprj-
<7tlv7] E 412, ’ A/cpio-LGovrp ; 319 (gen. of 'A KpLcncovr)) daugh¬
ter of Acrisius.

j. T aXaiovlSao B 566 is irregular ; it seems to be formed
by a cumulation of suffixes from T dXaos, cf. ’HeA/ou fT7 repco-
vlBao g 176. So A ao/xeSovrcaSr]^ (Aao gebovr Labrj T 250) is
formed from A aogebovrios which itself appears as a patro¬
nymic (in the form Aagebovnos) in a Boeotian inscription ;
cf. Aaogebovrte i ral Eur. Troad. 822. A bz? T eXagcovidbr]^
"T 838 appears to have the same formation when compared
with TeXagcovios A l'a<? 'E 842.

Conversely, for A evKaXibrj^ instead of Aev/caXcovlb? see e
above.

k. Some adjectives in -to? are used as patronymics, as TeAa-
ficovLOS A <a? B 528. Cf. Uoidvriov vlov 7 190, T eXagcovie irai
Soph Aj. 134, K povcG 7ral Pind. 01. II 12. This formation
appears constantly on Thessalian and frequently on Boeotian
inscriptions. Cf. the nomina gevitilicia of the Romans.

l. The patronymics in -3??? are far more numerous than
those in -icov ; the former are found in Homer 708 times; the
latter, 148 times.

m. The patronymic is sometimes derived from the grand¬
father’s name : Achilles is called A5z/a3?7? B 860; Priam, A ap-
bavtbrj<; T 303; the two grandsons of Actor, ’A/croptWe B 621.
Thus in later poetry, Heracles is called Alcides (’A X/cet3?;?)
from Amphitryo’s father ’AX/cato? or ’AX/ceu?.

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.

§ 22. a. Comparatives and superlatives end in -lwv, -caros
more frequently than in Attic: fipabvs, /3dpbcaro<;, — fdpdcr-
<twv probably from fipa^vs, — yXv/cvs, yXvKLcov, — /ca/co?, ica-
klcov as well as fca/ccbrepos, — (£tAo?, (faXicov as well as <piXre -
po?, </>/XtO.T09, - Gt)/CV<?, to/CUTTOS aS Well as GOKVTarOS.

60

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 22, b.

b. Some comparatives and superlatives are formed from
noun stems : (3acnXevTepos I 1G0, /SacriXeuraro 9 I 69, Oedorepai
v 111, Kovporepoicn A 816, vvvrepov 0 483, kvvtcltov K 503, —
alaylcov, alcr^iaro^ (atcr^o?), dXyuov, dXyiaro^ (aXyos) , eXey-
% lctto 9 (eXey^os) , vepdiov, vepdiaro 9 (fcepSos) , rafiicrTos (/cr/Sos) ,

KvdujTO^ (/cOSo?), pbTjKiCTTO^ (piT/KOs), pLCUCpOTGpOS , pLCLfCpOTCLTOS ,

piyiov, ply taro 9 ( plyo 9).

c. In some comparatives in -repo?, there is no thought of
a greater or less degree but of a contrast, as dyporepdcov
{ppuovwv) B 852 of the field , as opposed to the town ; dgXv-
repcu (y waive 9) 0 520, female , as opposed to male ; opeVrepo?
(hpdvaov) X 93, of the mountain , as opposed to the valley.
Cf. fjgerepos, vgerepos, Setfirepos and apurrepo 9 right and left.

d. From adverbs are formed: dy^LcrTos (acraov, daaorepcofi
dfidprepos, irapolrepo 9, 7 rporepos, virepraTos.

e. dyaOos has comparatives ape 1 gov (cf. dpicrTos), (3eXrepov ,
Xgolov, Xcolrepov.

f. dvirjpo 9 has a comparative dvigpearepov (3 190.

g\ I'eo? has a superlative vearat I 153, veiarov B 824.

h. 7roXv$ has a comparative 7 rXeloov or TrXecov and in the
plural also 7rXee? A 395, irXeas B 129.

i. fiaeivos has a comparative fiaeivorepos, a superlative
<f)advTaros v 93 (for cpaevraro^, cf. cfidavOev A 200 for e(f>d-
evOev).

j. go is found where the Attic rule would require o, in
vavotfeivoorepos v 376, Xaphoraros (3 350, oUfvpoorepov P 446.

k. The t of -iGov is regularly short as (puXicov r 351 ; cf.
the occasional l of the patronymic in -lgov, § 21 h.

NUMERALS.

§ 23. a. evl has a collateral form leg Z 422; cf. the femi¬
nine forms I'd A 437, 079 II 173, if) I 319, lav £ 435.

7 rpcoro? has a collateral form tt poor bar 09, cf. tt dgir poor 09
H 324.

Of the compound ov&els (ovS* 649), besides ovBev, only ov -

§ 23, {.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

61

Sei >i is used (twice, X 459, X 515) ; from is found only

fiTjSev S 500.

b. Svco, Svo is indeclinable ; it has the following collateral
forms : Socco, Solol, Socal, Sold, 5cao£?, Solovs.

Sevrepos has a superlative Sevraro^; last of all , while Sevre-
po<? has the comparative ending as the latter of two.

c. Tplros has a collateral form rplraros, cf. gecrcraTO 9 with
p-ecrcro?.

d. recrcrapes has a collateral form, the Aeolic iricrvpes, O 680.
Its ordinal is rerparos, by metathesis (§ 13) for rerapro?.

e. oktgo has the ordinals oySoaros, oySoo?. In rj 261, £ 287,
oySoov seems to have been substituted by error in all the
Mss. for oySoarov.

f. evvea has the ordinal etvaros (few /zto??), emro?.

g. ScoSefca has the collateral forms Svc ohe/ca and SvoKalSefca.
b. evevrjKovra B 602, has a collateral form ivvij/covra r 174,

with which may be compared evp/covra on an inscription of
Drymaea in Phocis.

i. pivpla is not yet used as a numeral for 10,000, but only
for a countless ( indefinitely large) number.

62

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 24, a.

PRONOUNS.

§ 24. I. Personal and Possessive Pronouns, a.

Sing. N.

> / 5 /

eyoo, eyoov.

ad, tvvt) (6 times).

G.

ifJL€?0, 6/460 (K 124),

cre7o, aeo, crev , (TeOev,

eTo (A 400, x 1^),

6/460, /4eo, efieOev.

t eoto (0 37).

60, 60, 6060.

D.

i/Ltoi, flOL.

cr oi, TOi, re 'iv (5
times).

oT, 60? (N 495, 8 38).

A.

> / /

6yU€, /Ll€ .

/

(T€.

6, 46' (r 171, n 134),

fJ.LV.

Possessive.

6/40S (e/47], 6/4 do).

ads, reds.

os, eds.

Dual N. A.

van, vdo (as Acc., E 219,

0 475).

(T(pd>l, acpU).

(T(p 0)6.

G. D.

van v (as gen. only X
88).

(T(pU)lV, (T(p(pv (5 62).

acpwtv.

Possessive.

vaolrepos.

aepoo'iTepos.

Plur. N.

rjfi e?s, ajj.fj.es.

0/46 7s, VjJ.jJ.es.

aepeiaiv (4 times),

G.

rjfie'icov (4 times), rj/xe-

o/4eicoo (4 times),

crepe o)o (4 times),

uv (9 times).

v/j.ewv (5 times).

o-<£>o)o (M 155, T
302).

D.

7]fUV, ’hjALV, &fifu(v).

0/440, 0/440, tjjj.jj.1.

( T(pl(Tl[v ), acf)'l(v).

A.

7]fj.eas , Tf/Lias ( it 372),

'd/j./j.e.

vjj.eas, v/j./j.e.

a (peas, acpas (E 567),
c T(pe (5 times).

Possessive.

7]fj.erepos , a/4 6s (7
times).

vfjerepos , vfxds.

acperepos, (repos.

b. The oblique cases of and v/ieis are said to retract
their accent to the first syllable when they are unemphatic
or when the last vowel is short, as u 372, vfiewv O 494,
vfjLiv a 373; but this rule is not observed constantly in the
Mss., and editions vary.

c. The oblique cases of the 3d personal pronoun when
enclitic are anaphoric, like avrov kt\. in Attic ; when ac¬
cented they have their original reflexive use, like Attic kav -
rov , efiavrov, creavTov , rcr\., which compounds are posthomeric,
and are not found even in Pindar.

ix'iv, crcp we, crcpcoLv, cr(f)L, crcfxis, and a<p6 are always enclitic.

§ 24, i. j

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

63

(1. The Aeolic forms cigges, afi/ie, v/ifies, vyye generally
might stand in the text for gyas kt\. So, also, perhaps

ayyos and vyyos should be written for the possessive forms
ayu,09, uyao?, to bring them into correspondence with the
Aeolic personal pronouns.

e. For the relation of the form eyeio to e’yae'o, of aeto to ceo,
kt\ ., see § 5 g.

f. 609 seems to stand for aeFos suus (cf. the old Latin
soils'). Its use is not confined strictly to the third person;
it means simply oivn (cf. 1810$, only twice in Homer, from
the same root), as ov roc eye o ye | 779 (for eyrjf) yaii)<$ 8vvayai
yXvrcepebrepov aWo I8ea6ai t 28 I can see nothing siveeter than
my own native land , Soogacnv olcnv (for croiaev ) dvdcrcroLs a 402.
It is with rare exceptions the possessive of ov in its reflexive,,
not in its anaphoric signification (see 0). As this use of ov
became less familiar to the Greeks, it is probable that other
words and forms were occasionally substituted for forms of
€09 in the text of the poems.

II. Intensive Pronoun. g\ avro 9 regularly retains its
intensive force in the oblique cases, even when not connected
with a noun expressed, often marking a contrast which it is
difficult to render smoothly in the English idiom. Cf. § 1 li fin.

The presumption is always strongly in favor of the origi¬
nal meaning; but all shades of meaning are found from the
strict intensive to the simple anaphoric use of the Attic dia¬
lect.

h. For avro)? in the sense of weravrw 9, see j below. In
this use it has a large variety of meanings, as (acfrpovd r)
avrojs r 220 a mere ( simpleton ) ; without cause A 520, without
a prize A 133, absolutely B 138, vainly B 342, without chariot
E 255. Most of these meanings are derived from in the same
way as before , the connection determining the special sense
of each passage.

III. Demonstrative Pronouns, i. The Attic article 0,
7), to, generally retains its demonstrative force in Homer, but

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

64

[§ 24, j.

like the intensive pronoun in the oblique cases, appears occa¬
sionally in its Attic signification.

In their demonstrative use, o, o/, al , are best written o,
?), oi, ai. — to/, rat, tw? are used besides of, a/, w?.

j. Thus the absence of the article does not mark a noun
as indefinite; cf. avbpa pcoc evveire Xlovcra a 1 with arm a vi-
rumque cano. avrijv bbov 6 107 is equivalent to Attic
rrjv avTTjv 68ov, and frequently aur&>? is equivalent to Attic
bocravrws (cii? being the adverb of the article, see k below and
§ 38 li) while o>? 8' avrco<; T 339 is equivalent to Attic ovrco 8’

coaavrw^.

k. The demonstrative article is often followed by a noun
in apposition with it, as oc 8' eyaprjcrav ' Ayato l re Tpcoe? re
T 111, but these rejoiced , both Achaeans and Trojans , avrap o
/3ovv iepevaev dva £ civ8pwv Wyapuepivcov B 402 but he , Agamem¬
non , king of men , sacrificed an ox.

l. The forms with initial r often have a relative force, but
refer only to a definite antecedent; this is a relic of para tac¬
tic construction (§ 3 nj, as is particularly clear in dWa ra
pie v ttoXlcov e^eirpadogev ra 8e8aarai A 125 but what we took
as spoils from the cities , these have been divided.

m. roLcrbeacnv /3 47, rolcrSecn cf) 93 belong to o8e. They
are analogous to the Aeolic rcov8ecov of Alcaeus and to the
rovvveovv (for rwvewv, from ove = oSe) of a Thessalian inscrip¬
tion.

n. /ceivos is often found for ifceivos, as the adverb /ceWi for
eKelOc (only p 10), while e/ceZ is not Homeric.

IV. Relative Pronouns, o. Besides the Attic forms,
o is used for 6'?, oov (better oo, § 17 cj for ov, e??? H 208 for
r)$ (where for efis to rrpiv, oo rpoaOev has been conjectured).

p. The forms o? and 6 have also a demonstrative use, espe¬
cially o? with ov8e, gife, teat, and yap.

For the relative use of the article, see l above.

q. The neuter o is frequently used as a conjunction, like
quod. So also on and o re.

§ 25, «.]

TI1E HOMERIC DIALECT.

65

V. r. The Indefinite and Interrogative Pronouns
have genitive singular reo, rev, dative rew, genitive plural
recov , dative reotcn, neuter plural of the indefinite daaa only
r 218. The stem of reo seems to be distinct in derivation
from that of tAo9 but identical in meaning.

s. In o Tt? for o? rt9 (cf, 6 for 09, 0 above), the first stem
often remains uninflected; 6 tls, on or om, orev or orreo,
ore w, oTiva, orecov (wv rivcov not being either Ionic or dac¬
tylic), oreoidi , OTiva,?, neuter plural dcraa ( ortva X 450, but
corrupt).

CONJUGATION.

§ 25. Augment and Reduplication, a. The augment
was for a time considered unessential: whether temporal or
syllabic, it may be omitted in the Homeric poems ; the ac¬
cent is then thrown back as far as possible, as refine A 4, oXe-
KOVTO A 10, defuel A 25, /cdOegev 1 72 QrcaOeipiev) , avecrav <3? 587
( dveicrav ).

b. When the augment is omitted, monosyllabic forms with
long vowel take the circumflex accent, as j3rj for ej3r).

c. Iteratives generally have no augment, § 36 a.

d. Forms without the augment are less common in the
speeches than in the narrative. In the narrative, the aug¬
mented preterits are to the unaugmented as 7 to 10, but in
the speeches as 7 to 2.

e. The Mss. are frequently of less authority than the
rhythm of the verse in determining whether a form should

be augmented : e.g. at the close of the verse, — w, w -

(where the comma indicates the end of a word) was pre¬
ferred to — w w, - ; hence dXge cdr/icev A 2, not dXyea 6?]tcev

(§ 40 7c) ; redye e/ceiro F 327, not redyea fcelro. To write
eXoopi erevye Kvveacnv A 4, or Se reXeiero fiovXij A 5, would
create the forbidden caesura between the short syllables of
the fourth foot (§ 40 m). For the same reason the augment
is omitted also when it would interfere with the Bucolic
diaeresis (§40 K), as gla <y eivaro gijrrjp T 238.

66

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 25,/.

f. After the augment, initial X, pc , or a is sometimes doubled
(in many instances as the assimilation of an original F or <x)
as well as initial p : eXXiTcivevcra k 481, eXX a(3e a 298, cpipcaOes
cr 362, eaaeve A 14T (see § 41^ a).

g. Sometimes initial p is not doubled, as ipdirropiev it 379,
epe^a 3 352, epe^e B 400 ; cf. eppvaaro /cal ecrdwcrev O 290
with ipvcraro /cal icrdwcrev y 372. See § 12 c.

h. Stems which originally began with a consonant may
take the syllabic augment or reduplication, as een rov, erj/ce,
edyrj, edXrjv , eeXirero, — eoi/ca, eoXira, eopye, eeXpueOa 11 662.
Thus el8ov is for i-FcS-ov, eipirov is for i-crepir-ov. In epyarai
k 283, this reduplication seems to be lost, cf. iepyaro /c 241 ;
so heyarai M 147, ecrcrai co 250. In rjucTo , as 8 796, and rjei-
8^? X 280, the 7] is the augment lengthened by the following
f (i fuc - and fiS-'). See § 41 d.

i. In the usual texts, many of these verbs have the tem¬
poral augment ; this probably was not so spoken in the origi¬
nal form of the poems, but is a conformation to later usage.
5’ eavaacre is the rational, more original form for the Ms. read¬
ing 8’ rjvaao-e y 304, av8ave for ijvhave A 24, idvhave for erjvhave
y 143, ea%e for T1 392, edXco for ijXco % 230. See § 4 h.

j. The second aorist active and middle, of verbs whose
stem begins with a consonant, is often found with a redupli¬
cated stem, as i/ce/cXero, XeXd^wcri, dpareiraXcov, iirecppaSe, Treiri-
6oLpL7]v, ererpue, rerv/covro.

k. The so-called Attic reduplication is more common in
Homer than in Attic, and its use extends to the second aor¬
ist where the augment also may be used ( cf '. Attic i)yayov ), as
i)pape, tf/ca^e, dXaX/ce, and the peculiar forms epv/ca/ce A 352
from epv/cco, i)vL7ra7re B 245 from Ivlittw in which the final
consonant of the theme is reduplicated with a as a connec¬
tive ( ivevLire , as cr 321, is found more frequently).

l. In the perfect, the vowel after the Attic reduplication
is not always lengthened, as dXdXypuaL, while it is never
lengthened in the aorist (§ 31/).

§ 26,/]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

67

m. A reduplicated future is foi "led from the stem of some
of these reduplicated aorists, as tceKahycrei cf> 153 from the
stem of fcefcdhovro A 497, TreTnOyerw X 223, TrecftiSijcreTai 11 158.

n. The reduplication of pepvircopieva f 59, hcryaQai I 402,
is not according to Attic usage. SeiSe^arai (from heitcvvpu),
8el8oi/ca, and BelBia have irregular reduplication ; probably
the last two are to be explained as for SeSfoifca, 8e8pia
(§ 4:1 1/3).

o. 6/ji/jbope (from pielpopiai) and ecrervpiai (from erevco ) double
the initial consonant and prefix e as if they began with two
consonants (§ 41 j a).

J

§ 26. Endings, a. The singular endings, -pu, -erSa, -en,
occur more frequently than in Attic; especially -pu and -en
in the subjunctive, as I'Seopu, dyaycopu, ideXyen, fieiXyen. These
endings are rare in the subjunctive of the contracted pu-
forms, as Smctl A 129, cf)6yaiv T 805, yen O 359.

b. -er6a is used three times in the optative, as (3dXoier6a
O 571 ; 29 times in the subjunctive, in 12 verbs, as eiiryaOa
T 250, iraOyaOa fl 551 ; 8 times in the present indicative, in
five verbs, as efryerda 186.

c. In three verbs -tov is used for -ryv as the ending of the
third person dual imperfect : ireu^erov N 346, Sico/eerov K
364, Xaefnjo-aerov 2 583. -ryv would have made an amphi-
macer — w — See § 41 a .

d. The third plural of the perfect active ends in fieri (for
-avri) ; den i£ found only in 7 reefivteden rj 114, XeXoyKeien
X 304.

e. In the pluperfect, the older endings -ea ktX. are pre¬
served, as ySea H 71, ireiroiOea 8 434, SjeiSys X 280. The
third singular ends in -ee(z') or -eiv, as (Beftytceiv A 221, y8ee
B 409.

f. The second and third persons singular of the first aorist

optative active end in -eie(v), as pieiveias, tcaXeereiev .

The second person in -at? occurs very rarely ; the third per-

68

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 26, g.

son in -ai is more common, as 7 rjOrjcrcu A 255, deipai H 180.
The third plural with but two exceptions (/ cycuev , Kreplcracev
12 38) ends in - eiav , as riaeiav A 42, d/covcreiav B 282.

g. The third plural optative active of /u-verbs ends in -iev
(except crrairjcrav P 733), as eiev , Sapieiev, Solev.

li. The second singular imperative ending -61 is retained
in some presents, as iXrjOi 7 380, 8iBco0i 7 380, opiwOi 585 ;
and in some perfects, as reOvaOi X 365, rerXaOi A 586.

i. The third plural imperative ends in -tcov, -crOtov (never
- rcocrav , -crOwaav), as ecrrcov A 338, (pevyovrcov I 47, Xe^d-
ctOcov I 67.

j. a. Active infinitives (except in the first aorist) fre¬
quently end in -pievcu, which is sometimes shortened after a
short vowel to -piev, as epipievcu, epupiev, eX OepLev^au) , reOvd-
pLevQap).

(3. The shortening of -pievcu to -pie v occurs generally before
a vowel, where it may be called elision.

7. The ending -vat is found only after a long vowel, as
Sovvcu, SlSovvcu 11 425.

k. The ending in -epuev is clearly preferred to that in -eiv
before the Bucolic diaeresis (§ 40 li) ; even before the diaere¬
sis at the end of the first foot of the verse, the ending -epee v
could stand ten times as often as the ending -eiv is required.

.1. The second aorist active infinitive in 12 verbs, and the
future active infinitive in 9 verbs, have the anomalous end-
, ing -eeiv, which probably stands for -epuev or -eev, which may
be restored.

m. Aorist passive infinitives end in -pievcu or -vai, as Sapn'j-
pievai T 266, Sapirjvcu T* 578; pu^Oppievai A 438, puyr) pievcu
Z 161, pu<yr)vcu X 306.

11. The perfect participle has the inflection of the present
in fce/cXrf'yovTes M 125. See § 31 <7, e.

o. Some second perfect participles retain in the oblique
cases the co of the nominative, as Te0vr]MTos a 289, /3e/3ad)Ta
e 130.

§ 26, v.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

69

p. The second singular of the middle generally remains
uncontracted (§ 6), as dSvpecu, iSi^ac T 130, j3d\\eo A 297,
wSvaao a 62, e/j,dpvao % 228. Contracted forms are used
occasionally, as pberarpeTry A 160, yvcoai ) B 365, /ce/cXjcr y T
138; once in the imperfect, i/cpe^a) O 18.

q. In the perfect middle, -aat regularly loses its a ; but
p^epiVTjaai 648 is found as well as pLepLvrjcu d? 442, pLepivr)
O 18 (for /, uepLvecra.L, as if from pLepivopiaL ).

-cro retains its a only in the imperative, as eWo, icrTacro.

r. The first person dual of the middle once ends in -pueOov,
7 repiScop^eBov T" 485 (cf. XeXelpbpbeOov Soph. El. 950, 6ppid>pLe6ov
Phil. 1079) but the metre would admit irepuhoopLeOa with hia¬
tus at the Bucolic diaeresis (§ 9 b').

s. The first plural middle often ends in -p,ecr0a (which is
found also in the tragic poets), as IfcopLecrda y 61.

t. The third plural of the perfect and pluperfect indicative
middle often, and of the optative middle always, ends in
-arac, -aro for -vtcu, - vro , as SeSalarac a 23, i re(fx)/3paT0 <t> 206,
y evolaro a 266. Before these endings, smooth labial and
palatal mutes are aspirated, as opcope^Tat II 834 from opeyco,
rerpdcjyaro K 189 from rpeirco.

Attic prose writers use these endings sporadically in the
perfect and pluperfect ; but the tragic poets use this ending
only in the optative (as yvcocrolaro Soph. O. T. 1274, cf. Ajax
842, El. 211 ; Se^alaro 0. C. 44, cf. 945 ; cf. also Oelaro
Aesch. Suppl. 665).

u. S seems to be inserted in the forms d/c^eSarac P
637 (d/cay /£&)), e\7]\eSaro rj 86 (eXawco), eppdSarai v 354
( paivopiai ). These forms probably came from collateral
verb-stems which contained S , cf. pdacrare u 150 ( palvo -
/xai for paZvj &)).

For eXrjXehaTo, Dindorf and Nauck read the less anomalous
form eXrjXearo, La Roche reads eXrjXd^aro.

v. The third plural indicative of the aorist passive gener¬
ally ends in -ev instead of -ycrav (46 forms in -ev to 15 in

70

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 26, w.

-rjcrav), as gyepOev A 57, tydavOev A 200, rpdcfrev A 251, hterga-
yev A 531.

w. Similarly, v is used for the later -aav in the imperfect
and second aorist of /at-verbs, as %vvcev A 273, ecrrav, arav,
e(3av, ecfivv e 481, er\av O 608.

For the optative ending of pu-ve rbs, in - Lev not -Lycrav, see
g above.

§ 27. Subjunctive Mode. a. The variable vowel (“con¬
necting vowel ”) of the subjunctive is generally short in the
first aorist, second aorist of /u-forms, second aorist passive,
second perfect of primitive formation, as fipcrogev, dyeLpopcev,
logev, Oetogev, rpaireiopiev, Sapbelere, eihopuev, ireTroiOopuev.

This short vowel is found before the endings -gev, -tov, -re,
and in middle forms.

b. A few forms of the first aorist have a long vowel fol¬
lowing the analogy of the present, as SpXycnjTai T 107.

c. There are no certain examples of the short mode-vowel
in the present of verbs in -w. (For (3ov\ercu dvridcras A 67,
/9ouA?/t’ dvTidcra ? may be substituted, etc.')

Hem. The forms of the first aorist subjunctive are easily con¬
fused with those of the future, with which they are identical in
appearance.

§ 28. Optative Mode. a. For the optative endings, see
§ 26 5,/, g, t.

b. After l or u, the optative sign disappears: hcuvvro H
665, hvrj a 348, ifchvgev IT 99, XeXvvro cr 238, ^>digrjv k 51,
c pOtTO \ 330, Saivvaro cr 248.

c. aXcfroiev is contracted to dXcfroiv v 383.

§ 29. Contract Verbs. I. a. Verbs in -aw exhibit un¬
changed, assimilated, and contracted forms ; the poet’s choice
between contracted and uncontracted forms seems to have
been determined largely by the rhythm. The vowels are
regularly contracted when the second is in a short syllable.

§ 29, A.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

71

b. Uncontracted forms without assimilation occur rarely
' (in only 21 verbs), as dvapbaipudei T 490 (with long a as in

BiyJrdcDP X 584, 7 recvdwv T 25), vaierdovcn £ 158, dochideu k 227,
ovrae ^ 356 Qovra, A 525 and often, is a second aorist, see
§ 35), KpaSdwv H 213.

adco imperfect, d> 238, and imperative, v 230, is a /xt-form,
as if from adwpu.

c. The vowels of the uncontracted forms are generally
assimilated, a prevailing over a following e or r; but being
assimilated to o, w, or ov. These forms are intermediate be¬
tween the original and the contracted stage, as opowauv 6 173
(i opdovcriv , opwcnv), yfiGoovres 11 604, iXdav 7 484 ( eXa-ev , eXav).
dXoco e 377 seems to be for dXae-o contracted to dXd-o ( cf . h
below), with assimilation of vowels aAco-o, and by transposi¬
tion of quantity dXo-co.

d. One of the vowels is usually lengthened in the text of
the Mss., as opowvres rj 145. Sometimes this appears to be a
conformation to Attic usage (§ 4 li).

e. Dual forms follow the analogy of Homeric verbs in -pu ,
as (iTreiXriTrjv X 313, 7 rpoaavhrjTrjv A 136. Cf. j below, and
pprjcu % 343 as from opypu.

f . A few verbs in -aw have collateral forms in -ea>, as tfvreov
H 423.

II. g. Verbs in -ea> generally remain uncontracted ; except
ee, which is generally contracted in the Mss., but often the
uncontracted forms are metrically possible, eo is very rarely
contracted except in the participle ending -evpievos (where
contraction occurs to prevent a too frequent recurrence of
short syllables, § 41 g). eoo is never contracted but is often
pronounced as one syllable by synizesis (§ 7).

h. Sometimes the variable vowel e is contracted with e of
the stem instead of with the termination, as alSeio II 503
(a78ecr-£-cro), pivOelai 6 180, airelo K 285. airelo seems to be
formed on the analogy of alhelo. One of these vowels is
sometimes dropped, as diroaipeo A 275, e/cXeo H 202, puvdeaL

72

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 29, i.

/ 3 202, 7 rcoXecu 8 811. The accentuation of these last three
forms is uncertain.

i

i. The older form of these verbs, in -etco, is sometimes pre¬
served, as ereXelero A 5, veuceipat A 579. See § 5 f.

j. Some verbs in -aco and -eco have a present infinitive in
-rj/jbevat, like /u-verbs, as apppuevai % 322, icaXppievcu K 125,
7 roOrj/Jbevat fi 110, (fiiXij/uLevcu X 265. See § 34 b.

cpopeco forms cpopeeiv A 144, <p>opr]p,evcu O 310, (poprjvaL B 107.

III. k. Verbs in -oco are generally contracted. Sometimes
they have forms with the double o sound, like verbs in -aco, as
dpowaiv i 108 ( dpoovatv , apovcnv ), vtcvwovtcls; e 48, earparo-
covro T 187 (which might be written iarparoovro'), 8rjiow6v
8 226 ( SrjtooLev ?).

TENSES.

§ 30. Future and First Aorist, Active and Middle.
a. Pure verbs which do not lengthen the stem-vowel in the
formation of the tenses, often have double a in the future
and first aorist, active and middle, as al8eaaop^ai £ 388, kcl-
Xeaaa II 106.

h. In the future the a of the before-mentioned verbs often
disappears, as fcaXeovaa T 383, dvnocov a 25, Kopeec © 379 (for
/copeaei, from Kopevvvpu ), 8apida X 271, /cpepioco H 83, cf. icopua)
o 546 ; oXeaaei [3 49, oXeaco v 399, oXelrcu B 325.

c. Stems in S often show double a in the aorist.

d. Most of these forms with aa may be explained as origi¬
nal or assimilated, as veUeaae from the theme veucea (cf. vel-
Kof), /copLLaaaro for rcopub-aaTo (cf. icopuhrf). Thus the stem-
vowel of these verbs was not final originally, and hence is
not lengthened in the future and aorist.

e. The asigmatic future of liquid verbs is inflected like the
present of verbs in -eco, as BaXeeo k 290, oXeeaOcu O 700. See
§ 29 II.

f. Some stems in X and p retain the a of the future and
aorist (as some do in Attic), as apaas (dpapiaKoi) a 280,

§ 31, c.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

73

eXcrai A 409, Oepcropevos r 507, Kvpcras T 23, 8ia(f)0epcreL N 625,
ifceXaapev i 546, Mpcre A 10. For ofyeXXeiev f3 334, see § 12 e.

g. The so-called Doric future with tense-sign ae, is found
in ecrcreiTcu B 393, i reaeovTcu A 824. This is an archaism, not
a Dorism.

li. Some verbs have a future without tense-sign, as Spew
£ 291 slialt find, elpc, tcelco r 340 shall lie Q/ccuaceiovres a 424
to lie down), e8opcu, nriopai, dvvco, ipvco, fieopai O 194 (^e/o-
pat X 431). Some of these verbs are old presents which
acquired a future signification ; elpi is not always future in
Homer, cf. B 87.

i. Some verbs form the first aorist active and middle with¬
out er, as i)veucav 8 784 (Attic r/vey/ca), e^evev /3 395 and e^eev
Z 419 (from e^ea for eyeua), ecrcreva E 208, rjXevaro X 274 and
dXeaaOe 8 774, efcrja A 40, subjv. tcrjopev H 377 (from /calco).

j. The first aorist often has the variable vowel of the
second aorist °/€, as l%ov 7 5, 8vaero /3 388. So in the im¬
perative, as /3i)<jeo E 109, opcreo T 250, d^ere r 105, oiaere
T 103, oyfreade H 704; infinitive, oiaepevcu T 120; participle,
8vaopevoio a 24 and probably iirifiricropevov n 343.

k. Verbs in -£a) often have themes in 7 and thus futures
and first aorists in and -£<z, as e^aXaira^at A 129, pepprj-
pctje /3 93, TrroXepl^opev B 328.

l. The future optative is not found in Homer.

31. Perfect, a. The so-called first perfect in -/ca is
formed only from 20 vowel-stems. It is almost as rare as
the first aorist in -tea (e8co/ca, er\ica, edrj/ca). Forms without
k are derived even from vowel-stems, especially participial
forms, as rce/cpr/rcas Z 262, but /ce/cprjcos T 232 ; rrefyvKacn r/
114 but 7 T€(f)vacnv 7) 128 epiretyvvia A 513 ; reOvr/Kev a 196,
redvrj/cvcav 8 734, but- reOvrjora P 402.

b. The final mute of the stem is not aspirated.

c. The endings are affixed immediately to the reduplicated
verb-stem in /3e/3dao-p <ye<ydaai, 8€l8l6i, 8€l8lp6v, i8€i8i(rav, iypip

74

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 31, d

y op0e, eiKTOv , eiXyXov0piev, 1&/JL6V, fce/c/JLrjcos, /xe/xarov, ireTroaOe,
67r67Tidfiev, eo-rare, TerXai7 j, rerXa0i, reOvacrav.

d. yvcoyov (as £ 216), /xe/JLrjfcov (as i 439), yeycove (as 6 305)
are inflected as imperfects ; cf. eppiyycn Y 353, oXcoXy A 164,
which have the force of present subjunctives.

e. dXaXypuevos, aXdXrjcrOcu, aKayppuevo^, dfcd^rjadai, icrcnj-
pievos are accented irregularly as presents. See § 26 n.

f. The second perfect often has a long vowel in the stem
where the second aorist has a short vowel, as apypy e 361,
dpapy II 212 ; opcope H 374, wpope B 146.

g. In the feminine participle the short form of the stem
appears, as dpypcos k 553 but dpapvla £ 267, re0yXco<; pi 103
but TeOaXvla £ 293 ; hence iucvia not ei/cvia T 386, etc.

VOICES.

§ 32. Middle, a. The active and middle forms opav
(about 40 times) and opao-6cu (about 20 times), I8eiv (more
than 200 times) and I8ea0ac (90 times), are used often with¬
out appreciable difference of meaning; cf. ecparo f3 267, tyy
ft 377.

lb. The first aorist middle is sometimes used without dif¬
ference of meaning from the second aorist active, as e/dyaero
7] 135, e/3y a 427 ; eSvaero T 328, e8v T 36 ; Kiyycraro A 385,
e/ctyev y 169.

c. The future middle is sometimes used as passive, as 8iap-
paicrecrOcu II 355, nrepaerai 12 729, reXeeaOai B 36. Cf. e.

d. The aorist middle is sometimes used with no distinc¬
tion of meaning from the passive, as /coipiyo-avro A 476, kol-
pLy07)pb€v i 559; yoXwcrapbkvy Y 413, yoX(o0€is A 9; e8vvyaaTO
5 33, 8vvacr0y e 319; y yparo S 270, ydpy Y 76 (cf. /ceyapol-
aro A 256) ; direvdcrcraTO B 629, vdcr0y H 119 ; dyepovro B 94,
yyep0ev A 57 ; Xvpuyv 80, Xv0ev 12 31 ; dpi(f)6yvro B 41, dpifye-
yv0y 8 716; cf. icTdcr0cu O 558 be slain , tcrapikvoio Y 375;
and iXeXiy0ycrav E 497 they rallied , 0wpyy0yvai A 226 arm
himself , I0vv0yryv II 475.

§ 34, rf.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

o

e. Homer lias only (Lpypcraadai, rjpaadpLrjv, ijaaro, ope^aroy
never the corresponding passive forms.

33. Passive, a. For the ending of the aorist passive in¬
finitive, see § 26 m.

b. For the ending of the third plural indicative, see § 26 v.

c. The second aorist subjunctive passive usually remains
uncontracted, and follows the rule of ytu-verbs (§ 34 cl).

d. In the second aorist subjunctive, the passive suffix is
often long (and the mode-vowel short in the dual and in the
first or second person plural, § 2T a'), as 8aeico i 280 (from
stem 8a-, cf. 8arjvai), 8apbpr)s Y 436 (fapcvripci), crairpr) T 27
( 'arjirco'), BapiTjere H 72, rpaTreLopcev T 441 ( repirw , § 13), but
puyecocnv B 475 (ytu<77&>).

e. Homer has only two futures from passive stems, 8arjcreai
7 187, pu<y7]cr€cr6aL K 365.

f. Some verbs have both first and second aorists passive,
as e/3\d(f)d7]crav T 387, efiXafiev T 461 ; epoc^Or) E 134, epdyrjv
Y 445; TrrjyOev 0 298, i rayev A 572; erepcf^Oyre p 174, rdp(f)dr]
cf) 57, irdpirrjcrav H 633, rpaireiopcev Y 441, with TerapiroopLeaQa
T 10 in the same sense.

VERBS IN -MI.

34. a. Some verbs in -pu have forms in the present and
imperfect indicative which follow the analogy of contract
verbs: rcdel a 192, 8l8ol 8 237, 80808(71 a 313, lelcn T 152, £81-
8ov A 289, irldeo f3 390 ; so 8apcva \ 221, 7 rlrva 7, hcipva
rj 182, copwe (ft 100.

b. Verbs in -pu sometimes retain the long vowel of the
stem where it is short in Attic, as roOppLevai T 83 (for n6e-
vai), cf. (fuXrjpLevai X 265 ; TiOppcevov K 34 (for ridepcevov').
8c8d)(7o^€y v 358 ( 8cocropiev ) and 8i8ovvai H 425 are irregular.

c. For the ending -v for -crav, see § 26 w.

d. The second aorist subjunctive active generally remains
un contracted. The stem vowel often appears in its long

76

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 34, e.

form witli short mode vowel in the dual and in the first and
second plural (cf. §§ 27 a , 33 cT), as 6eiw a 89 (better dpw),
7 vcoco £ 118, aryy 9 P 30, Scoycnv A 324, Traparrgrov e 183,
Oeiogev A 143 (better Oyogev ), 7 vcowcn A 302, ipelogev A 62
(better iprtogev, as from an epp/u).

e. w jgt send has the following not- Attic forms: Zetet (Zaet),
ijjcTL \iy) lev ( lecrav ), legevai (^levat), aveaei (avyerei), eytca
(fjtca), tcdOegev (jcaQelge v), eaav , elcrav ( f)fcav ), gedelco (p-edw),
pert, dcfxsy, dvyy (avy), gedegev (^gedelvai) , evro ( elvro ).

f. a. eZ/u po or s7tttZZ go is aoristic except in the present
indicative. It has the following not-Attic forms : eZedc
(thrice for eZ), pta, dvrgov (pa), yte, ye, Ze(^) (pet), rrpz;
(prpz/), yogev, egev (r/gev), ytcrav, laav, ytov ( fjaav ), LycrOa
(tp?), I'ycnv (tp), logev, logev (I'cogev), leiy (tot), lgev(ai)
( ievcu ), fut. el'erogai, aor. eicraro, eelcraro.

f3. Perhaps ytgev, ytcrav should be read for yogev, ytov.

g. a. elgl am has the following not-Attic forms : eeet,
€t? (also enclitic, somewhat less frequent than eee/, which
consists of the original stem ee- and the original ending of
the second person -et, which generally can be substituted for
it) (eZ), elgev ( eergev ), edert (etc t), 77a, ec, eW (pt')J eycrOa
{ytrVa), yev, eyv, yyv {yv), eaav (77 crav), ew, geretco (w), ep?,
ycTiv (779), ewet (wet), eot9 (etp 9), eot (ety), ecrao , a form of
the middle voice, as also Sappho I 28, (Tedt), eggev(at ), by
assimilation for ecr-gevai, egev(at ) (eZmt), ewz7, eovera kt\. (mv,
ovaa ktX.) , eaaerat, ecrcretrat (twice, for carat). Iterative
ecr/cov, ea/ce.

ft. eyv, yyv (yv), probably should be written eez^, pez;.

7. Forms without the root-vowel e (remnant of ee-) are
very rare, as peti* T 202, wet H 274, w 491, ovays r 489, oV-
t<x9 y 94 ; 77^ is more common but often can be written eei/.

h. (pyg[ sag has the following not-Attic forms : (fcycrOa
(efrys) , eefyav, (f)dv (eepaaav), cf>yy, (ftyatv (0p). Middle forms
are common, but not in the present indicative : efydgyv , e^aro,
tyavTo , imperative (pdo , (jxlaOco , infinitive (paaOat , participle

§ 36, b.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

77

c fcd/jL€vo< Iterative efyacncov tcrX, irecjxicrpLevov H 127 may
come from (paivco.

i. fcel/icu lie has the following not-Attic forms: Keiajat,
fcaarcu, /ceovTcu ( Keivrai ), /ceiaro, Kearo ( e/cecvro ), Kijrai (from
KeercLL for Keyraft. Iterative tcea/cero. For the future /celco,

k€lwv, tceiovres, see

80 h.

j. a. rj/jicu sit has eiarcu, ear at (rjvrcu), ecaro, earo ( rjvro

r 158).

ft. ijarcu and rjaro are more rational forms than elarai and
e'caro, which are found in the Mss.

k. olBa know has the following not-Attic forms : oiBas
(only a 387, for oia6a), IBpiav ( icrfiev ), jjBea (ijBrj), rjeiBrjf; (see
§ 41 d, for ijSrjaOa), r/elBec, tjBee (ijBei), ccrav (ycrav), l8/jL€v{cu')
(elBevcu) , IBvia (elBuia). Future elBrjcrco as well as eicropLcu.

l. x p /] in Homer seems to be a noun. See §3 k.

§ 35. Second Aorists without Variable Vowel.
Many second aorists, active and middle, are found without
variable vowel, following the analogy of verbs in ~/u, as e/cra
a 300, efcrcLTo O 437 (from Krelvco, stem fcrev-, /era-) ; aXcro
n 754, aXro A 532 (aWo/icu) ; a/xevcu d5 70 (a«) ; yevro © 43 ;
iyy'jpa H 148, y rjpds P 197 (yrjpaco) ; eyvco A 199 ; Be/cro B 420
(8eyo/xat) ; ftXijro A 518 (ftdXXco) ; kXv0l ft 262, /cXvre B 56
(k:\5cd) ; epUKTo a 433 ; olna Z 64, ovrdp,evai i 301 ; TrXrjro
X 50 ; eireTrXws y 15 (7 rXooco) ; ecreruro B 809 Qaevoi) ; ecf)0LTO
X 100, (f)6ic r6ac ft 183, (f)0LpLevos 0 359 (<fi0Lvco).

ITERATIVE FORMS.

§ 36. a. Iterative forms of the imperfect and aorist indi¬
cate the repetition of a state or action. The augment is
generally omitted. These forms are characterized by the suf¬
fix -a/c and have the inflection of the imperfect of verbs in
-cd. They are confined to the Ionic dialect. The iterative
idea is frequently waning and occasionally is lost.

b. Verbs in -cd add the endings -atcov or -ctko^v to the

78

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 36, c.

e-form of the stem of the present or second aorist, as eyecncov,
eXecr/ce, eLirecrrce , chea/ce.

c. fcpvTTT acr fc€ ©272 probably should be Kpvirrecnce. piir-
rao-fce # 374 probably should be pi^acnce, although both may
be considered as formed according to mistaken analogy.

d. Iteratives from the first aorist are peculiar to Homer,
iXacracr/ce ( eXavvco ), pLvrjcrdcnceTO (papivijcr/CGo) , Ope^acncov ( rpe -

%«)■

e. The suffix is sometimes added without variable vowel
to themes which end in a vowel, as eW/ee? T 295, coOearce X
596, (fxivecrfce X 587 (the only example of a passive).

f. Verbs in -pa add the endings -cncov or -cncopurjv directly
to the theme: efyacncov, hocncov , hvcr/cev, Kecncero (/cet/zcu),
ecncov (for ea-cncov, elpui).

PREPOSITIONS.

§ 37. a. Prepositions often retain their original adverbial
force (as ev he but therein , i rapa he and beside him). They
may be placed after the verbs or nouns with which they are
connected. See § 3 d.

b. a. The preposition is often separated from the verb
which it modifies, as 7 rap he K ecpaXXijvcov dyu-01 erre^e? ovk
aXairahvai \ earacrav A 330 f., where 7 rap modifies earaaav.
In ev he 7 rvpl irp^aavre^ H 429, ev is to be construed adver¬
bially, while 7 rv pi is dative of means.

j3. Sometimes the preposition, like other adverbs of place,
governs a genitive where in its prepositional use it would be
followed by another case, as rov p^o^Xov vn to airohov i'fXaaa
t 375 1 drave the bar under the ashes , where vi ro airohov would
be more regular.

y. Similarly other words which were separate in the Ho¬
meric age were welded together in later time : ov yap eVt
became ov/cerc yap, hia h’ dpiirepes A 377 became hiap,7repes he.
So in* old English to us ward was used where the later idiom
requires toward us; be thou ivare for beware!

§ 38, a.]

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

79

c. Anastrophe. a . Disyllabic prepositions, when they
immediately follow the word with which they are construed,
take the accent upon the penult, except dgcf)l, dvrl, dvd, hid.
dva Z 331 stands for dvdargdc. eve is used for eve ten or eve-
(ttl, eiri for eirecrn, gera for gerean. airo is used for arroOev
far from, irepc is used for rrepicraws exceedingly.

(3. Elided prepositions suffer anastrophe only when they
as adverbs modify a verb to be supplied, as eV Y 45 for
eirecm, — or by way of exception, in order to avoid ambi¬
guity, as e<f A 350, to show that the preposition is to be con¬
nected with the preceding word ; so irdp' 2 191, tear p 24G.

7. This so-called retraction of the accent to the first sylla¬
ble is only a conservation of its original position, from which
it was moved when the adverb lost something of its inde¬
pendence by its close connection with a verb or noun.

d. a. ev has the parallel forms elv, elv l, eve. elv stands only
in the part of the foot which receives the ictus, and its use
is nearly confined to certain phrases, as elv dyopfj, elv ’A ISao
hogounv. elv l is used but half a dozen times and only in the
second foot.

/ 3 . The poet uses both e? and et?, Kara and Karai (in
KaTaif3arai v HO), 7 rapd and rrapal , 7 rpo?, 7 rport, and 7 totl,
viro and viral, vrrep and virelp.

7. The forms in -at seem to be old locatives, cf. yayal
(Jiumi) .

e. e£ receives an accent when, following its noun, it stands
at the end of the verse, as dewv ef p 518, or is in danger of
a wrong construction, as Oecov e$j eggope rtgig e 335 from the
gods she has received a share of honor.

f. dgcf)L, dvd, and gerd, are used also with the dative.

ADVERBS.

§ 38. a. a. A predicate adjective is often used where the
English idiom has an adverb or an adverbial phrase, as yfk J09
eftr) A 424 went yesterday , geplg A 497 early in the morning ,

80

THE HOMERIC DIALECT.

[§ 38, b.

7ravr]/ji€ptoL A 472 all clay long, iravvvyios a 448 through the
whole night , geraBo pirLos B 194 after supper , kvvvyioi A 683 by
night , cvBlol A 726 at midday , ecnrepioi £ 344 at evening , Trprj-
vig E 58 Qpronus') on his face , iirog^aXcov H 267 (ebr’ ogtya-
Xp) on the boss , Be^tov K 274 cm the right , gerdnnov IT 739 cm
the forehead, 7re£o9 II 438 on foot.

/3. Similarly fcelvos 12 412 there , 007-09 K 341 here, and fre¬
quently oSe, as ?/yU,eA oTSe a 76 we /cere.

7. 7r pocppcov willing is used only predicatively, where the
English idiom uses willingly.

b. Adverbs ending in -a are common : Xlya (but Xcyicos is
more frequent), ad(f>a, rdya (about 70 times, but raye a)? only
^ 365), coxa. These seem to have been originally neuter
cognate accusatives, and many are such still; cf. 7roW’ eVe-
reXXe, 7 ro\\’ gparo, geya vrj'Kie, geyc'OC evyero, ktX.

c. Adverbs in -Bgv and -Bov (originally adverbial accusa¬
tives from stems in -Ba and -So) are : dgftoXdBgv, ftdBrjv, eiri-
ypd(38rjv, eTTiXlyBrjv, €7ri(7Tpo(pdBr]v, /cXijBrjv, /cpv/SBgv, geraBpo-
gdBrjv, ovogaicXpBriv, 7rapa/3XrjB7)v, 'KporpoTrdBrjV, V7roj3\gBrjv
(all having the signification of the participle of the corres¬
ponding verb), — dyeXrjBov, dvacfiavBov, dva- (o7ro-, eirt-, 7 repi-)
araBov, (dorpvBov, Bia/cpcBov, IXaBov, fcaracfrvXaBov, /carcogaBov,
/cXayyrjBov, iravdvgaBov, (paXayygBov.

cl. Adverbs in -Ba are rare, as dvacfyavBa, dirocrraBd, giyBec.

e. Adverbs in -Sc? are : aXXvBis, dgoi/3rjBg, dgvBg, dg-

f . Adverbs in -1 are : dgoyrjrl, avaigwri, dvcBpcori, dvoyrr/rl,
dvOHCTTL, daTrovBl.

g. Adverbs in -J are : yvv^, imgl Kovpilj, Xd%, o8d£, 7 rof .

h. Adverbs in -&>? are not common ; they are most fre¬
quent from o-stems : 007-0)9 (00x09), 009 (0), avrco 9 (0.0x09),
/co/cw9 (/C0/C09). I'acos and ogoLcos are not found, /coAo>9 only
/3 63, (filXco 9 only A 347.

Adverbs in -0)9 are formed also from dfypaBrjs (dcppaBew^
datyaXps Qda(\>aXewf),Xiyv^ (Xcyecof), geyas QgeydXwf) , ray 09

§ 39, c.J

HOMERIC VERSE.

81

(TO^ew?), Te’xyy'ieis (re'yvrjivrcof;), ancl from the participles
(used like adjectives) eTrLardgevos, eoavgevo^.

These adverbs in -oj? are little used also by the lyric poets :
KaXoosy kclk a>9, tcra)9, dWcos are not found in Pindar.

HOMERIC VERSE.

§ 39. The Heroic Hexameter, a. The poems are to
be read with careful attention to the metrical quantity of
each syllable, as well as to the sense of the passage. There
are six feet (bars or measures) in each verse ; hence the
name hexameter. The part of each foot which has no ictus
(the arsis) should receive as much time though not so much
stress as the ictus-syllable (the thesis). The rhythm would
be called J time in .modern music. The English hexameter
(found e.g. in Longfellow’s Evangeline) is generally read as
of f time.

I>. The written word-accent is to be disregarded in read¬
ing Homeric verse. Occasionally (as avSpa got evverre , govaa,
iro\vTpoirov 09 gd\a iroWd a 1) the verse-ictus and word-
accent may coincide, but the word-accent seems to have had
no influence on the formation of the verse.

c. The dactyl (J J'J' or _ww), with the ictus on the
first syllable, is the fundamental and prevailing foot of Ho¬
meric verse. It is often replaced by a spondee 1 or heavy

dactyl (J J or - ). In three verses of the Iliad (B 544,

A 130, T 221) and in three of the Odyssey (o 334, <£ 15, ^
192) each foot is a spondee, but a restoration of older, un-

1 This name was derived from the use of this slow solemn measure in the
hymns which accompanied the libation (airovS-q) to the gods; cf. two brief
hymns of the Lesbian Terpander, about 700 n.c., to Zeus: ZeG iraurwy apx“4
iravroov 0777x0 >p, | Zev, aol o-rrev8w ] ravrav v/xucav apxav, and to Apollo and the
Muses : ^7T€i/8w/ul€V reus M vdp.as \ nvaLalv Mwaais | Kal T(p Mcaaapxv | A arovs viei.

82

HOMERIC VERSE.

[§ 39, d.

contracted forms would give at least one dactyl to each of
these verses ; ’ArpelSys • rco S’ avr’ e/c SLtypov yovva^eaOrjv A
130 may be read with two dactyls ’ArpecSr]^ • rco S’ avr etc
Sixfipoo (§ 17 c ) yovva^eaOrjv.

Dactyls are about three times as frequent as spondees in
the Homeric poems.

d. Verses in which each of the first five feet is a dactyl
are far more common in Homer than in Vergil: there are
160 in the first book of the Iliad alone. Many frequently
recurring verses have this rhythm ; as rov S’ dirapieLftopLevos
7 rpocrecpr) iroba^ co/cv? A^iWevs, — oi o ei t ovetau eroipia irpo-
KeipLeva yelpas taWov, — avrap eVel rrocnos kcu iSrjrvos
epov evro. Many other verses have but one spondee (gener¬
ally in the first foot) among the first five feet ; as r/puos S’
rjpvyeveLa cjidvr) poSoSd/crvXos — r/pios S’ r/eXios KareSv /cai
errl fcvecfras rj\6ev.

e. Spondees are most common in the first two feet; they
are more and more avoided in each foot toward the close of
the verse, except perhaps in the fourth foot where the great
Alexandrian critic Aristarchus preferred a spondee. But
very many of these spondees in the first and fourth feet of
our texts can be and doubtless should be resolved into dac¬
tyls ; thus dyrfpaov B 447 is now read for the dy^pwv of Aris¬
tarchus.

f. The first foot allows more freedom than any other. A
short vowel there more frequently retains its natural quan¬
tity before a mute and a liquid, and yet is more frequently
lengthened in the unaccented part of the foot (§ 41 h y') be¬
fore that combination. At the close of the first foot, hiatus
is allowed (§ 9 b).

Similarly the first foot of the iambic trimeter of Greek
tragedy and of English poetry has exceptional freedom.

g. The Bucolic diaeresis (§ 40 h) is seldom immediately
preceded by a word of three long syllables. Before this
diaeresis, a dactyl is strongly preferred, and is to be restored

§ 40, c.]

HOMERIC VERSE.

83

in many places where the Mss. have the contracted form.
Certain dactylic forms, as /3>;o-ero, are preserved there more
frequently than elsewhere in the verse.

h. Verses which have a spondee in the fifth foot are called
spondaic verses (eirrj cnrovSeLatcd) . They are more common
in Homer than in the Latin poets, — about 4 per cent, of the
verses of the Iliad being spondaic.

i. These spondaic verses seem especially frequent at the
close of emphatic sentences or of divisions of the narrative
(cf. A 21, 15T, 291, 600) and in descriptions of suffering and
toil, but often no rhythmic effect is sought ; the convenience
of the verse determined the measure.

j. The last two feet of the verse must not consist of two
spondaic words : thus ’Hw Slav l 306 should be ’H oa Slav,
S?']/jLov (firjfus £ 239 should be S^goo (f)r//u<;.

k. The last foot in each verse is a spondee, but the final
syllable may be short ; the deficiency in time is then made
up by the slight pause which follows at the end of the verse
(§ 41 a, p a). A heavy or consonantal ending is preferred;
hence the ^-movable is often used.

l. The student need not concern himself about elision as
in Latin poetry ; that is already done in the text ; but he
must be watchful for synizesis (§ 7).

CAESURAL PAUSES.

§ 40. a. Each verse has one or more caesural pauses ( cae¬
sura = rofirj cutting ), — pauses within a foot.

b. The principal caesura of the verse is always a pause in
the sense, and is often emphasized by punctuation, as in each
of the six successive verses H 10-15 ; but occasionally com¬
mas are found where no pause is necessary.

Of course there can be no pause immediately before an
enclitic, since this is closely connected with the foregoing
word.

c. A caesura is almost always found in the third foot;

84

HOMERIC VERSE.

[§ 40, d.

only 185 verses of the Iliad and 71 of the Odyssey have no
pause there. It occurs either after the ictus-syllable (as
fJLYjviv deibe 6ed /\ YlrjXrjLdbew ’ A^EVfio? A 1 — ww| —
_A_|_wu|_uw| - I) or between the two short sylla¬

bles (as avbpa fioi evvei re M ovaa /\ iroXvrporrov o? pidAa iroWd

a 1, _ww| — uu| — \j f\ \j \ — \j \j | — w w | - I). These

two caesuras are about equally frequent ; but the second
slightly predominates and seems to have been preferred.

d. The importance of the caesura in the third foot is
marked not only by the freedom with which hiatus is al¬
lowed there (§ 9 b), and by the evident avoidance of elision
at that point (§ 10 e), but also by the large number of tags
of verses which are suited to follow it ; as iraryjp dvSpcov re
0ewv re, fiocoTris irbrvia''Wpri, 6ea XeviccbXevos "Yiprj, 6ea y\av-
kwttis ’A 6/]vt), (juXopupLeibris ’A cfipoSirr), A to? Ovyarrjp ’A typohirrj,
evKvr'/fube 9 ’A yaioi, ' A^cuwv ycLkicoyirddvwv, tcdpr) /copcbcovres
'A%cuol, dp7]L(f)i\o<; M ez/ekao?, aval; dvbpbbv ' Ay a pie pbvcov, /3or]v
dyaOos AiopLrjSrjs, Yeprjvio 9 irrirora Near cop, /cr\. — all of
which must be preceded by the feminine caesura (see/) of
the third foot ; while ’Ayapiepivovos ’A rpelbao, evpv rcpeiwv
’ Ayapcepivcov , rjy proper rjbe puebovres, dirapLeiftero (fxbvr)aev re
/cr\. must be preceded by the masculine caesura of the third
foot. See § 4 6, c, d.

e. The pause after the first syllable of the third foot is
called the penthemimercd caesura (irevre, rjpu- , pcepos') because
it comes after the fifth half-foot ; it divides the verse into

4- 3J feet. The pause between the two short syllables of
the third foot divides the verse into 2f + 3£ feet.

f. The pause after an ictus-syllable is called a masculine
caesura because of the vigorous tone which it gives to the
verse ; the pause between two unaccented syllables is called
a feminine caesura.

g. Sometimes the principal pause of the verse is the mas¬
culine caesura of the fourth foot. This is called the hephthe-
mimeral caesura (kirra, f)pu~, yuepo?). This is somewhat more

§ 40, to.]

HOMERIC VERSE.

85

common in the Iliad than in the Odyssey. It is frequent
after a feminine caesura of the third foot. It gives an ener¬
getic movement after a penthemimeral caesura, when the
verse is divided into 2J + 1 + 2£ feet.

li. Sometimes the pause of the verse is at the close of the
fourth foot ; this is called the Bucolic diaeresis (a diaeresis
being a pause at the end of a word between two feet) or cae¬
sura, since it is most evidently aimed at in the bucolic or
pastoral poetry of Theocritus. Occasionally there is a tran¬
sition at this point to another part of the story, as A 318,
348, 430. This Bucolic diaeresis with the penthemimeral
caesura divides the verse into 2-J + 1-J- + 2 feet.

i. The importance of the Bucolic diaeresis is marked by
the large number of tags of verses which are ready to follow
it, as Bios ’O hvcrcrevs, ep/cos ’A yaiu>v, iirirora N ecrrcop, o/3ptpio<?
5,A prjs, tyaihipLos f/E /crop, <&ol/3os *A7 toWcov, TLaWas 'AOijvT), bice
Oedwv, pbr/riera Zeu?, IcroOeos (^co?. See § 4 c. Hiatus is al¬
lowed here occasionally. See §9 b.

j. A slight pause occurs after the first short syllable of the
first foot about 50 times in 100 verses.

k. A slight pause occurs about as often, after the first

short syllable of the fifth foot. The poet prefers to close the
verse with the rhythm — w, w - (where the comma repre¬
sents the end of a word) rather than — w w, - ; hence ovre

reXecrcras A 108, not ovr eVeXecrcra?. See § 25 e.

l. The principal pause of the verse is almost never at the
close of the third foot ; this would divide the verse into two
equal parts and cause monotony. A word ends there not
infrequently, but is acconqDanied by a more prominent cae¬
sura in the third or fourth foot ; as ev6a thov i rXelarov^ <Tpu-
ya? avepas T 185, where the last two words are so closely
connected that no caesura is felt between them. But see y 34.

m. Even a slight pause is rare between the two short syl¬
lables of the fourth foot. In teal eireiOero pivOw A 33, the
objectionable pause might be avoided by omitting the aug-

86

HOMERIC VERSE.

[§ 40, n.

ment, but the conjunction is connected with the verb so
closely that no caesura is felt.

n. It has been remarked that the iorbidden caesura is next
in position to the favorite Bucolic diaeresis ; while the for¬
bidden diaeresis at the close of the third foot is next to the
favorite feminine caesura of the third foot.

o. No sentence ends with the second foot.

p. The pause in the third foot gives to the rest of the
verse an anapaestic movement, from which it is often recalled
by the Bucolic diaeresis. Similarly the Roman Saturnian
verse (as Dabtint malum Metelli /\ Naevid poetae) is at first
iambic, but is trochaic at the close.

q. The varied position of the main caesura, and the minor
pauses in different parts of the verse, give perfect freedom
from monotony without detracting from the grace and dig¬
nity of the measure.

QUANTITY.1

§ 41. a. Metrical convenience or necessity often determined
the poet’s choice among synonymous words (§ 4 a—d') ; since
ambidexter was not suited to dactylic verse, irepi-
8ej;ios was used 168. The poet in general preferred the
light dactyls to the heavy dactyls or spondees, and retained

1 The beginner will find it convenient to remember concerning a, i, v, the
vowels whose quantity is not clear at the first glance, that

(1) they are short in the final syllable of any word when the antepenult
has the acute or if the penult has the circumflex accent ;

(2) they are regularly short in inflectional endings, as paxycri, ^ipwa, rpe-
irovai, Te0j/7 iKa, — in the final syllables of neuter nouns, as Swpa, fipap, pe\i,
fiaKpvy — in suffixes, except where v has been lost before a, as (pvaXs , SoXltjs, 4>of-
vicraa, — in particles, especially in prepositions, as <W, irtpi, vv 6, apa, ctj, —
and generally in the second aorist stem of verbs ;

(3) they are long in the final syllable when the penult is long by nature
and has the acute accent ;

(4) they are long when they are the result of contraction, as iripa from
eripaf, ip6v from Upov, veKvs from ve Kuas, and as the final vowel of the stem of
nouns of the first declension.

§ 41, c.]

HOMERIC VERSE.

87

in the Epic dialect a large number of dactylic forms which
were afterwards contracted. An ampldmacer (— w apical,
/jLCLKpov ) was avoided often by means of apocope, synizesis, or
elision.

Most exceptions to the rules of quantity are only apparent.
The poet, for example, did not lengthen a short syllable by
placing the ictus upon it. If an apparently short final syl¬
lable stands where a long syllable is expected, it is probable
either

(1) that the final syllable was originally long, and later
lost part of its quantity, as irpiv, nouns in -t? QSXoo-vp&Tn?
icrrecpdvcDTo A 36), and the dative singular ending of the
third declension (§ 18 a) ; or

(2) that the following word has lost an initial consonant
which would have made the preceding syllable long by posi¬
tion (see m below) ; or

(3) that the pause (musical rest') of a caesura or diaeresis,
fills out the time occupied by the foot, allowing the same
freedom as at the end of the verse (§ 39 Jc).

h. A considerable number of anomalies, however, remain
unexplained. Prominent among the unexplained anomalies
of quantity is the l of certain abstract nouns, as v7rep07r\ir}crL
A 205, irpoOvpLLrjai B 588, dripLiycTL v 142. This l receives no
ictus, hence no satisfaction could be gained even from the
obsolete doctrine that a short syllable might be lengthened
by the poet if it were made the ictus-syllable of the foot.
These abstract nouns form such a definite class that it may
be assumed that there was some explanation, perhaps physio¬
logical, for them all.

c. Doubtless when the poems were recited musically, it
might have been easy for the bard in his intonation to hold,
and thus to lengthen, a syllable which was usually short, or
to slur over a long syllable and treat it as short. But it is
not found that Homer or any other poet availed himself of
this license.

88

HOMERIC VERSE.

[§ 41, d.

cl. Many apparently irregular variations of natural quan¬
tity, as well as apparent freedom in allowing hiatus, and vari¬
ations of quantity made by position (see m below), are to be
explained by the loss of a consonant, e.g. ari] or darp was
originally dfary (see § 14/); the loss of y and the conse¬
quent lengthening of one of the neighboring vowels (cf.
fiacnAefos, /SacriAgos, /3acnAea >?), explains dacrdggv I 116 and
dacraro I 53T, as compared with dacras © 237 ; decrapev (dye-
cragev, from lavod) 7 151 but decrav 7 490 ; "A t'8o? T 322 but
AtSt A 3, from a-fiS (§ 14), cf . rj€i8rj<; X 280 for ;

gegacrav B 863 but gegciore^ B 818 (gegaforef). In evKrjAos
A 554 ( etcrjXoi E 759), the form may have been favored in
popular use by a supposed connection with the adverb ed,
which seemed so natural in evaSev H 340 for efa8ev.

e. It may be supposed that the bards followed poetic prece¬
dents in allowing hiatus or lengthening before certain sylla¬
bles in which but a minimum of the original sound remained ;
sometimes, by false analogy, they may have treated in the
same way other syllables which really had lost no consonant.

f. a. A syllable which contains a long vowel or a diph¬
thong is long by nature. Final at and 01 are metrically long,
although short as concerns accentuation.

/ 3 . The quantity of some vowels is not fixed, as 2A7toAA«-
vo<$ A 14, A 7 toAAcov A 380 ; Ape?, ’Ape? E 31 (if the text is
right); ^t£(Te? T 743, SlSovlovs 8 84; cf. Aiovvaov A 325
with A Luvvcros Z 135 (which remained the usual form in
Boeotian dialect, as it is in Pindar) ; v8wp a 110, v8cop a 146.

7. Most of these vowels with variable quantity were origi¬
nally long and were becoming short, as the Homeric Zero?,
rcdAos, and <£dpo?, became Zero?, /caXo?, and <£dpo? in Attic
poetry. The penult of dvig was long in Homer but occa¬
sionally short in Attic poetry, peiapcvo (cf. aypp elapivfj B
471), Attic iapivos, is found on a Boeotian inscription. It
is evident that every vowel which at first was long and after¬
wards became short must have had at some time a metrical

§ 41, g.]

HOMERIC VERSE.

89

quantity which could be treated either as long or short, i.e.
its quantity was variable.

8. A trace of the original d in the ending of the neuter
plural remains perhaps in Wvea elcn B 87, where the hiatus
is justified as weak (§ 9 d').

e. For the length of final l in the dative singular of the
third declension, see § 18 a . n rpLv in 7 rplv avr Z 81 retains
its original length, as a contracted comparative.

So in Latin, the vowels of certain words had lost so
much of their original quantity in the time of Plautus that
he employed them sometimes as long, sometimes as short,
while in later Latin poetry they became definitely short.
Analogous to this, also, is the fact that a short vowel before
a mute and a liquid is generally long in Homer, while in
Attic it is generally short.

7]. With this variation of natural quantity may be com¬
pared the double forms employed in Homer, — one with a
single consonant, another with two consonants, as ’A^WezA
A 54, ’AybVeu? A 199 ; "OSvcrcrevs A 430, ’O Svcrevs A 494 ;
'TpLKKrjv B 729, T pLfcrjs A 202; ott7tco ? A 344, oVct)? A 136;
pbecraov T 266, puecrov A 481, kt\., many of which doubled con¬
sonants are known to be justified etymologically.

g. Sometimes a naturally short vowel was lengthened (not
by the poet, but in the speech of the people) in order to
avoid the too frequent recurrence of short syllables. This
is illustrated by the rule for the use of o or co in the compari¬
son of adjectives (cro^coTepo? but tcovfyoTepof), by the pains
shown by some of the Greek orators (as Demosthenes) to
avoid an uninterrupted succession of several short syllables,
and by the words which have a vowel similarly lengthened
in the Attic dialect (as aOdvarog, irpocn')<yopo^, vTrrjpeTT /?). We
find dvr/p but avepeg Q dvrjp M 382), cf. 7]voperj (Pindar dv>]p,
avopea ) Uplapios but Ylplapbihrj^;, Owyarnjp but dv^ydrepa (with
v in all forms of more than three syllables), airoveovro , ayo-
pdaaOe but dyopij, dOdvaros but dOa^rrog, cf. r/vepioevra from

dpep,og,67rLTOvog pu 423.

90

HOMERIC VERSE.

[§ 41, h.

h. a. In Homeric verse a syllable which contains a short
vowel is long by position when the vowel is followed by a
double consonant (f, f, \[r) or by two or more consonants,
whether these are in the same or in the following word or
are divided between the two words.

ft. This rule holds good also in case of a mute followed
by a liquid. This combination rarely fails to make position
within a word, and generally makes position when it stands
at the beginning of a word (as in rare tcpeiovrcov a 45), espe¬
cially when this word is closely connected with the preceding.

7. The influence of the metrical ictus on quantity is no¬
where else so clear as in strengthening this so-called weak-
position before a mute and a liquid : before this combination,
a short vowel is always lengthened (more than 2600 times)
in the ictus part of the foot ; while lengthening of an ultima
in the arsis is found 105 times, 48 of which are in the first
foot (as etc 8e 'Kpvo-rjis A 439, of. § 39/) and 47 in the second
foot (as ef ov Bp ra irpura A 6). Of course a short vowel
remains short only in the unaccented part of the foot. See
i /3 below.

i. a . Sometimes a vowel remains short before a mute fol¬
lowed by X or p, as lA(f)po8irrf T 380, apL(f)i/3poT7]s B 389, dpujil-
dpvfyrjs B 700, irporpciTrecrOcu Z 336, vevcre lApovicov A 528,
/ SdXe Tlpuapiidao T 356, yap pa IXXvTaipivpcrTprjs A 113. These
words and phrases could not have been brought into the
verse if the mute and liquid must make position, and the
history of the language shows that this combination of mute
and liquid was losing its weight (cf.f 7 above). Similarly,
the syllable must be short which precedes f3porcop, TrpoarjvSa,
rpdire^a.

(3. Of about 570 examples in the Homeric poems of a
vowel remaining short before initial mute and liquid, it is
said that 202 are in the first short syllable of the third foot
(as a)? o'i puev roiavra 777)09 dXXpXov 9 dyopevov E 274), 278 are
in the first short syllable of the fifth foot (as icai puv (fcwvrjaas

§ 4i, y.]

HOMERIC VERSE.

91

eirea Tirepoevra 7rpocr7]vSa A 201), 28 are in the first short syl¬
lable of the first foot (as rj tea n rpo? aXkr\\ov<$ T 155), 27 are
in the first short syllable of the second foot (as 5’ ore rt?
re Spdfcovra T 33) ; while only 84 are in the second short syl¬
lable of a dactyl, 25 of these being in the first foot (as /cal
/ 3a\e IT pcapuiSao T 356), and only one of the 34 being before
a sonant mute followed by a liquid (ra 8e 8pdypcara A 69).
It is evident that the numbers in such computations differ
with different texts.

7. That a mute and liquid do not always make position
is explained by the ease with which the combination can be
pronounced at the beginning of a syllable, leaving the pre¬
ceding vowel short.

8. In dvSporrjra XI 6, a remains short before three conso¬
nants ; but it is probable that this word has replaced some
obsolete synonymous word which suited the metre.

e. Before four words, two of which begin with the double
consonant f and two with the two consonants cnc (not a mute
and a liquid), the preceding vowel remains short : ol re Zd-
kvvOov B 634, ol 8e Z eXetav B 824, rrpo^eovro 'S/cap,dv8pcov B
465, erreird cncerrapvov e 237. Two of these words, Zd/cvvOos
and 'Z/cdpiavSpos (although the gods called it Hd^do?, T 74),
might seem essential to the poet’s story, and might be ex¬
cused by the greater freedom which is allowed to the treat¬
ment of proper names in verse ; but there are indications of
possible collateral forms with a single consonant ; cf. /cl8va-
pcaL with a/cihvapuaL (which is always used where the metre
permits), pu/epo ? with apu/epoq (§ 12/). Perhaps Adi/cwOo^
should be substituted for Z d/cvv6os, cf. J aQer\v A 38 with
8acj)OLvos B 308, Aev^LTTTro^ in a Boeotian inscription for Zev-
^LirTTos, AdyAy on coins for Zdy/cArj. It is noteworthy, how¬
ever, that Z d/cwOos was also the Greek name of Saguntum
and in that word Z may often have been pronounced nearly
like 5).

j. a. A single A, pi, v , p, a, at the beginning of certain

92

HOMERIC VERSE.

[§ 41, k.

words, may make position (cf. § 12 b') : 7 roXXa Xiacrogevw

X 91 - l-wu| — (cf. iWlcrcrero Z 45, rptWccrros © 488,

TroXvXkLcrTov e 445, ou8e Kara goipav II 867 (cf. aggopov Z
408, 8tegoipdro tj 434, epitope A 278, elgapro e 312, of which
the form of reduplication indicates that the stem was treated
as if it began with two consonants, § 25 o'), eifea vifyahecrai
F 222 (cf. ayd-vvL(f)ov A 420 and English snow ), oaa pe^eaKov
y 46 (cf. fepyov, WorJc, wrought, ), v\t) re crevairo T" 198 (cf.
eacrevovro B 808, €7 TicraevecrOai O 347, Xaocrcroos N 128).

/3. So also 8 makes position in the stem 8l- (Belaai fear)
and always in 8pv long, as ygecs 8e 8elaavre^ l 236, eBeicrev 8' 6
yepcov A 88, cf. 0eov8tg £121 god-fearing (for 6eo-8fgf)', ov
n gaXd 8j']v A 416.

y. A short vowel before a liquid is lengthened most fre¬
quently when it is in the ictus-syllable of the second or
fourth foot (seldom in the third or fifth foot) and generally
before words which begin with two short syllables, as evl
geydpoicn yeveOXg E 270.

k. It is stated that a short vowel is lengthened 123 times
before p (91 times, not counting repetitions), 70 (51) times
before X, 320 (111) times before g, 58 (30) times before v,
44 (29) times before 8, 9 times before cr.

l. a. Cognate languages and collateral dialectic forms
show that most words which in the Attic dialect began with
p, once began with crp or fp. This explains the doubling of
the p after the augment and in composition, as well as its
230wer to make position in Homeric verse. 85 per cent, of
the instances of lengthening before p are known to be justi¬
fied etymologically.

/3. The stem of the verb 8eiaai is found on a Corinthian
inscription as 8 ft. In the Homeric time, if the p was not
still pronounced by the Ionians of Asia Minor, doubtless the
8 was thickened in pronunciation by the disappearing f.

y. Of the instances of lengthening before g, most are only
physiologically explained; the /^-sound being easily continued

§ 41, o.]

HOMERIC VERSE.

93

until it is virtually a double consonant ; but this lengthening
occurs only before certain stems, not before /id^eaOac, peveiv,
piovvo ? kt\.

m. One of the consonants which made position has often
been lost, as ypfu Se puv fei/cvla T 386, irdpetird/v A T93 ( Trap -
fetird/v , § 14) ; /3e\os i^eirev/ce^ A 51, yap e^ov T 49, irap-
e^rj r 113, from the stem cre;y-, cf. avve^e^ l 74 (for avvcre-
X6<>) j Oeos m 9 r 230 (for Oeos Jws, § 12 ?), cf. /ca/cov w 9 B 190,
opviOe 9 W9 r 2, nre\e/cvs cos T 60, ol S' dp ' fcraz^ &)9 ec T6 B 780.
Both consonants which made position are occasionally lost,
especially in the stem of the third personal pronoun (§ 14 c, 7^),
as apa cp P 196 for apa erf dp, curb eo T 261 for diro erfeo. But
see § 14 /.

n. <p seems to be used as a double consonant in Z e^vptf
7] 119 — w w — , ocf)Lv M 208 — w, TTKpavo'Kco K 478 (although
here the reduplication 7 rt may be considered long by nature,
cf. Slcrvcfios Z 154). 07r</>£9 is now written for ocfns in Hip-
ponax Frg. 49, and is justified etymologically ; cf. 2 d7rcf>co
from the stem of crocfibs, 'la/c^os from fdy&), orc^ov (oyoz^) Pin¬
dar 01. Vi 24, (paioxcTcoves Aesch. Choeph. 1047.

o. a. A long final vowel or diphthong in the arsis of the
foot is shortened before a following vowel : ’A rpetSai re /cal
aWoi iv/cvrjpuSes 'A^atoi A 17, rrjv S' iyeb ov \vcrco A 29. The
shortening of a long vowel is essentially the elision of half
the vowel (§ 9 c?).

{3. The most frequent exceptions to this rule occur in the
first foot, less often in the fourth foot, — before the diaereses
where hiatus is most common (§ 9 b).

y. Final au , oc, ec are most frequently shortened before an
initial vowel. Final ol is shortened eight times as often as
final 77.

S. The diphthongs with v seem to have been more firm in
retaining their quantity than those with t. This is explained
perhaps by the greater permanence in the language of /rover/.

e. This shortening of diphthongs seems to indicate a ten-

94

HOMERIC VERSE.

[§ 41 ,p.

dency of the final i or v of the diphthong to go into its cog¬
nate y (/) or w ( p ) sound and disappear (cf. § 5 y). In
Pindar, also, a final diphthong is shortened far oftener (five
times as often) than a long final vowel. Of course there was
no hiatus as long as the / or f was spoken.

Final w and 77 are shortened before an initial vowel more
rarely than other diphthongs. 77, 77, &>, w, ev are shortened
more frequently than elsewhere when they are in the first
short syllable of the first foot, m is seldom shortened except
before an e or (less frequently) an a.

p. a. Before a pause (as before the close of the verse, see
§ 39 Jc'), a short vowel may be used in place of a long vowel :

* hcirepaai Tlpidgoio ttoXiv A 19 - I — ^ w | — v u A A, cf)ev-

ycogev * ere yap ktX. k 269 - | w A w ^ | — , e'tar a/covovres •

6 ktX. a 326 _ w ^ | - I w A . Not infrequently thus the

short final vowel of a vocative takes the place of a long syl¬
lable, even w vie Tlerewo A 338 ; in such cases the nominative
form frequently could be used. The pause in the rhythm
occupies the remainder of the time which would be spent in
pronouncing a long syllable, Is 1 I = I I. Before a pause,

also, a long final vowel may preserve its quantity although
the following word begins with a vowel.

/3. This pause, which allows hiatus and prevents the short¬
ening of a final vowel, gives prominence to the syllable before
it, as etc yap ’O pecrrao /\tlctls eaaerai a 40, 01 gev Bvaogevov
'T7 replovos a 24.

q. A few verses seem to begin with a short syllable, as
€7reL$7] to Trpwrov 8 13 (probably 67rf€l ), (plXe Kacriyvr\Te 308
(cf. <fiTXai E 117, €(f)lXaro E 61), 09 d£ei H 154 (for 05 f a£ei =
09 fe ajjei, cf. 09 a d%ei O 183), 09 77877 rd r iovra A 70 (for
09 ye/877, § 14), de/877 p 519 for dye/8 77 (see d above) ; /3ope 779
I 5 is in all Mss. for (3opprj 9 (Time. VI 2). For Ze(f>vplrj 77
119, see n above; for o-iw^ek M 26, see m above; for eV/ro-
^09, see g above ; but 81a gev dcnrlBos F 357 seems to have
been used on the analogy of BT Wc^poBlry ktX.

GREEK INDEX.

[The references are to pages.]

oowraTO, 88.

dPpoTa£op€v, 44.
aPpoVi], 44.
dyd'ycopi, 67.
A/yap€pvovi8T]S, 58.
d^dvvu}>ov, 92.
dyrjpaov, 82.
dyKpepcwrao-a, 42.
ayvvpi, 45.
dYfrpavTj, 42.

®Y°PT1> 22-

aYporcpdtDV, 60.

ayu>v, 22.

aS€\()>£o'o, 51.
’A8pi](rTivr], 59.
cUXXo'ttos, 38.
’A0d«, 52.
d0avaTT], 56.
ala, 35.

AtaKi8r]Si 59.
(xl-ytoxos, 12.
AIyvittlovs* 39.
atSeto, 71.
atSf'o-cropai, 72.
’AtSrjs, 22, 55.
alSolos, 39.

’'A'iSos, 88.
’AiSoVSe, 50.
’A'iStoveus, 56.
aUl, 38.
alcTos, 38.
alGrjp, 23.

Atveiu, 51.
atvoTraOt], 39.
Alo'Xoo, 51.

dlXp^Td, 51.
dKaxtiV€V°s> 74.
aKaxp-evos, 43.
aKtix^Sarai, 69.
aKXea, 53.
okoitis, 39.
aKOv-rj, 38.
dKovo-ctav, 68.
oKpar], 39, 53.
’AKpicricovTjS} 59.
aKrats, 51.
*AKTOpiWV€, 59.
aXaSf, 50.
dXaX-qpcu, 66.
dXaXrjpfiVOs, 74.
aXaXr|o-0ai, 74.
aXea(r0€, 73.
aXis, 45.
oXki, 55.

"AXtapos, 58.
dXXe'lai, 42.
aXXvSis aXXos, 36.
aXo'w, 71.
aXro, 37, 45, 77.
aXuivcu, 45.
dX<j>oiv, 70.
apPpoTOs, 44.
apevai, 77.
appfs kt\., 45, 63.
appopov, 92.
apo's /ctA., 62 f.
dpir£TraXwv, 42, 66.
dp<jus, 45.

if h*f\

ava, rJ.
dvdKT€<riv, 52.

ava£, 45.
ava£ dv8p«v, 12.
avSavw, 45, 47.
avSpficrcri, 52.
av8poTT]Ta, 91.
avfiorav, 65.
avTio'cov, 72.
a^€T€, 73.
aoiSo's, 22.
airfiXtlTTiv, 71.
airo, 7y.
dirocupfo, 71.
dirofi'n-wv, 49.

aTTOVfiOVTO, 89.
drrodpas, 48.
dTT7r£p\j/€l, 42.
apaio's, 46.
apapfl, 74.
’Apyftos, 39.
dp’yfvvawv, 36, 44
apfKTov, 43.

7Ap€s ”Ap€s, 88.
’'Apt]v, 54.

apRPTb 74-
apvo's, 46.

> ' *70

apowo-iv, /2.
ap«ras, 72.
acrpfvos, 36.
atTTr curios yr], 56.
acr era, 65.
curtra, 65.
curxpa, 55.
ao-Tv, 45.
anpiTjci, 87.
\Axpci8ao, 38.

96

GREEK INDEX.

’ATpttSriSi 57 f.

■yXavKawiSj 12.

SovXtov r|p.ap, 21.

’ATpe'twv, 59.

■yvciiwai, 76.

8vr], 70.

arpefia, 45.

Saijccai, 75.

8vcr€TO, 73.

AvY^iaSao, 57.

Saivuaro, 70.

Sua-KXe'a, 53.

avepvtrav, 42.

SaivvTO, 70.

8vcrop€voio, 73.

aviaxot, 48.

SaKpvo'(f>i, 49.

8wo-i, 67.

avTap, 32.

8ap.aa, 72.

€ KT A., 46.

avro'Otv, 50.

8ap,€i£V, 66.

cayr], 66.

avTos, 63.

AapSavtSrjs, 59.

eaX^v, 66.

avTot})i, 50.

AapSaviSwv, 58.

i'ap, 46.

auTws, 63.

AapSavCwvts, 58.

'TO

eacrKcs, <8.

acjrfei, 65.

8a<f>oivos, 91.

tarai, 77.

’AxauSeSj 58.

8e in apodosis, 30.

t'pav, 70.

’AxtXevsj 89.

-Sc, 50.

€Prj<r€TO, 74.

pdXXeo, 69.

8e8aiaTai, 69.

t'pXaPcv, 75.

papSuTTos, 59.

SetSt'xaTai, 67.

eySovTrrjcrav, 44.

PacriXearrepos, 60.

8eC8ia, 67.

€"yp-q-y°p0€, 73.

(3a<riXr]os, 38.

SeCSoixa, 67.

€7X«^, 55.

PePawTa, 68.

Seious, 54.

eyX°s, 22.

PcPrjKCiv, 67.

Setirvov, 22.

eScicrev, 92.

PepXrjKeiv, 45.

Seurai, 92.

t'Sva, 46.

Paopiai, 73.

Sckto, 77.

4'SpaKov, 45.

PeXeWcri, 52.

8e£iov, 80.

tSvVcTO, 74.

Peopai, 73.

AeuKaXiSrjs, 58 f.

€€£koo-i, 49.

Pt]V€o, 73.

8evTaTOS, 61.

ee'X8a>p, 49.

pCrj 'HpaKXi^tCr], 21, 54.

Se'xaTai, 66.

teXirtTo, 66.

pXrjTo, 77.

Srf, 29.

€TJK€, 66.

PoXeTai, 38.

8t) avT€, 39.

€T]v8av€, 36, 66.

Bopcw, 51.

8t]€is, 73.

e-rjos, 56.

Povs Tavpos, 14.

8t]LOW€V, 72.

€T|s, 64.

BpurtpSa, 58.

8t]XT](rr]Tai, 70.

€0€V, 50, 62.

PpoTos, 44.

8rjp.ov 4>r}fus, 83.

i'0vos, 46.

"yairjoxos, 12.

Srfv, 92.

etapivT)*, 88.

■yaXou), 52.

SiappaicrecOai, 74.

€iaTo, 77.

■Yao-TpT]v, 55.

8i8ovvai, 68, 75.

ttSov, 66.

ye, 29.

8i8ov<ri, 75.

«i!Kocn, 46.

ye'\(os , 53.

SiSwcra), 75.

tiKuia, 74.

■yevoiaTO, 69.

8iep.oipaTo, 92.

el'Kw, 46.

9 rr hr

-y€VTO, 77.

Sterpia-yev, 70.

eipapTo, 92.

■ye pa, 53.

SutjnXos, 52.

elv, 79.

Tl, 35.

8iX0d, 44.

etvai ktA., 34.

yr]0T)crai, 68.

8iwk€tov, 67.

clv£, 79.

^Tipas, 77.

Auovvcros, 88.

tio, 62.

■yXavKWTriSa, 53.

8o«h kt a., 61.

tlos, 37.

GREEK INDEX.

97

elpirov, 66.
el'pco, 46.
el's, 76.
etcr0a, 76.
eKcUp'yos, 35.

6KCLS, 46.

€ KCLCTTOS) 46.

CKaTTiPeXcrao, 35.
€KaTT]Po\oV, 35.
CKaTOlO, 35, 58.

€K8vp.€V, 70.
eK€l0l, 64.
ck6 kXcto, 60.

4'ktjo,, 73.

CKTjPoXoV, 35.
e kXco, 71.
eKpe'pO), 69.

it TT

6KTa, / i .
eKTTjcr0ai, 67.

eKupos, 46 f.

€KWV, 40.
eXaav, 71.
eXacracrKe, 78.
eXea-Ke, 78.
eXev'0epov ifpap, 21.
€Xr]Xe8aTo, 69.

&i£, 46.
eXXa(5e, 66.
eXXCo'o-e'ro, 92.
eXXiraveucra, 66.
eXiris, 40.
eXtrai, 73.
epe'0ev, 50, 02.

€|A€LO, 62 f.
ifie'o, 62.
cfnyqv, 75.
eppaOes, 66.

eppev(cu) ktA.,34,43, 76.

epiralov, 38.

£p.TT€(|)UVla, l 3.
ev 8e', 78.
evSioi, 80.
eve v tire, 06.

*t TCI

€ vi) 7y.

evveire, 43.
e’wrjKOVTa, 61.
evwpi, 44, 46.
6VVVXlol» ^O.
evTo, 76.
i|, 46 f.

79. ,

e’fjaXcura^cu, 73.
eot, 62.
eoiKa, 66.
eoXara, 66.
eopye, 66.
e'o's, 63.
eV, 79.
eTre'irXwSj 77.

eire^paSe, 66.

it

eiri, iv.

6TrLPrjcrop.€VOV, 73.
€m(3wcropcu, 39.
eTncro-eueo-Oai, 92.
eiricrTapeVcjs, 81.
eiriTOVOs, 89.
e'irop4>aXi,ov, 80.
eiros, 22, 46.
eTrpaOov, 45.
epa£e, 50.
e’pavvrjv, 36, 44.
epctTTTopev, 66.
ep^yov, 46.
epepewrj, 36, 44.
epe£e, 66.
epeiopev, 76.
epe£a, 43, 66.
e’ptySou'iros, 12, 44.
epiSoinrw, 44.
epos, o7.
eppaSaTai, 69.
e’pvKaKe, 66.
e’pvVaxo, 66.
epino, 46.

epxaTai, 66.

epws, 37, 53.
eo-av, 76.
e'cnre'pioi, 80.

eVirepos, 46.
e<nra, 44.
ecrcrai, 66.
ecrcrelTtu, 73, 76.

it 70

6o-o"€va, 16.
eVcrevovTO, 92.
eo'cri, 76.
ecrcro, 69, 76.
eco'opai, 44.
eoro-vpevos, 74.
eo-trupe'vcos, 81.

ecrcrvTo, 1 1 .
eo-Tav, 70.
ecrTparo'ajVTO, 72
eorTcov, 68.
e’o-xctpo'tljLV, 49.
eVatpos, 38.
eVapos, 35.
ereXeieTo, 72.

eVerpe, 66.
eVevxeTOV, 67.
eTTjs, 46.

€TOSs 46.
e-uaSev, 48, 88.
eviSov, 49.
evK-qXos, 88.
evicXetas, 53.

e’vKVT]pl8€S, 12.
evppeXCo), 51.
€1JVT]<}hV, 49.
evpe’a, 56.
evppetos, 54.
evpvo-rra, 51.
ecj)’, 79.
e'xevev, 73.
Zc£kvv0os, 91.
Zecjmpu], 93.
Ztjvo's ktA., 56.

S* T it i 9 on

■n> ”n>

TjPwovres, 71.
rfyepOev, 70.
rjSvs, 46.

TieCS^s, 66 f., 88.
tpXios, 45.

98

GREEK INDEX.

T]€pU], 80.
r)0os, 46.

rjlKTO, 66.

tjXfuaTo, 73.

r[\a), 66.

T]p.ap, 45.

■qpas, 62.

TIJxPpOTOV, 44.
T]p.€T€pOv8€, 50.
rfv, 37, 76.

Tj'v8av€, 66.

TjvtiKav, 73.
t|vloxt}€S, 55.

T]ViiraTT€, 66.

■qvaryeiv, 45.
rjvcjyov, 74.

T]|€, 66.

ovk, 39.
rjpa, 47.

Tjpwos, 38.
rfpws, 22.
T]CTK€IV, 45.
t]4»l (3u]<}y,, 49.
’Hw Slav, 83.
T]W0l, 50.
0apcr€vs, 39, 53.
0avp.a£co, 22.
0€a, 37.

0eais, 51.

0€UO, 76.

-0ev, 50.
OtociSca, 39.
0£ov8t]s , 92.
0€o<})iVj 50.
0€pevs, 39.
0€po-in]Sj 36.
©e'crireiav, 56.
0T)XvT€pai, 60.
-0i, 50.

0ovpiSa, 57.
Opacros, 45.
0p€'£ao-Kov, 78.
0v-yaT€pa> 89.
©vtcrTa, 51.

OupopaurTeaiv, 43.
0<Up€(OV, 51.

0VpT]0l, 50.

0v'pT]4>l, 51.

0va>, 22.

0copT]x0Tivai, 74.

\.a ktA., 60.
lax«, 46.

ISetv, 46.

\!8r]ai, 69.

"IS'qOev, 50.
i8p€v(ai), 43, 77.
ISptos, 53.

Ufa], 76.
icuri, to, 70.

HkcXos, 46.
iXt]0l, 68.

’IXioo, 51.

"IXios, 23, 47.

I£ov, 73.

I'ov, 46.

'lTnroTa8r]s, 57.
Lpa, 39.
l'pt]K€s, 39.
l'pT]£ KipKOS, 14.
’Ipis, 47.
ts, 14>t, 46.
t'o-av, 77.

Itros, 23, 46, 88.
‘IcTCaiav, 39.

I'tvs, 47.

tip, 60.

KaPPaXev, 42.
ko.8 8e, 42.
KaKK€lOVT€S, 73.
KaKo|€lVWT6pOS> 60.
KaKTave, 42.
KaXeouo-a, 72.
KaXXnre, 42.

KdXos, 23, 88.
Ka.'irrrecrtTTiv, 42.
koitt <j>aXapa, 42.
Kcup-r] ktA., 53.
nappe £ov<ra, 42.

KapTUTTOl, 45.
Kao-Topvvtra, 42.
koctx€0€, 42.
kcit’, 79.

KaTaiPaTai, 79.
K€8atr0evT€S, 44.

K€101, 50.

Keivos, 80.

K€Ka8r]'(r€i, 67.

K€ kXt]"YOVT€S, 68.

K€Kopv0pe'vos, 43.
K6CTK6TO, 77.

Kifaiev, 68.

KT]OJJL€V, 73.

KT)po0l, 50.

KLCOV, £o.

KXaiO VT€0"0"l, 52.
kXvT€, 77.

KVrjoTl, 52.
koiXos, 39.
KopicrcraTO, 72.

Kope'ei, 72.
Kopv0aioXos, 12.
Kocrpew, 22.
KOTvXr]8ovo4)t, 49.
Kovpoi ’Axcucov, 12.
KpaaTa kt A., 53.
KpaT€(r<})L, 50.

Kpeiwv, 54.

Kpepoco, 72.

Kprj0€V, 53.

Kpiva), 22.

Kpovicov, 58.
KpvTrrao-K€, 78.
KTap.€VOlO, 74.
KVVTtpOV, 60.

Kvpo-as, 73.
AaepTiaSris, 57.
Aaop€8ovTia8'qs, 58 f.
Xao’s, 37.

Xaotrcroos, 92.
XdpwTaTos, 60.
Xa4>vcro-€Tov, 67.
XeXaxwtrt, 66.

GREEK INDEX.

99

XcXvvto, 70.

XcvKwXtvos, 12.

Xcryos, 22.

Xo€, 38.

Xwiov, 60.

XwToxJvTa, 39.

fiav, 37.

pdcrrie, 55.

p.60€p.€V, 76.

p.€ padres, 88.

pe'pjlXeTO, |xe'|x(3XcOK€, 44.

p.€fXVT]CrCH, 69.

MtvoLTiaSris, 57 f.
Jl€p|lT)'pl|€, 73.
peVcrov, 89.
pe'ra, 79.
peTaSo'pmos, 80.
peTaTpeVr), 69.
p€T6t(0, 76.
perwmov, 80.

|rq aXXou, 39.
pr]8e'v, 61.
prjn, 52.
pt]Tl€Ta, 51.

pi*ye'axrtv, pi^rjcrttrOai. ,75.

pipvatw, 55.

piv, 62.

podvos, 38.

pu0e'ai, pu0etai, 71.

pvpia, 61.

Nauo-iKaa, 37.
vcu)({h, 49 f.
veCaTov, 60.

V€lK€lT]0"l, V€(k€0-<T€, 72.
V€lK€0"0"l, 43.

V€KXJ(rcri, 52.
vevpa, 56.
ve^eXrj-yepe'Ta, 36.
Nt|pr|i8€s, 58.
vr|ds, 54.
voe'u>, 22.

vocrnpov ifpap, 21.
£etvos, 38.

£dviev, 70.

o', os, :ct\., 64.

o*y8o'aTos, o*y8oov, 61.
o'ySwKovra, 39.
d'8e, 80.
d8prjv, 43.

’OSwev's, 89.

’OSuo-eds, 54.
OiSi-rroSao, 56.
oiko0i, 51 ; otKo'vSe, 50.
oIkos, 47.

’OiXid8r]S, 58.
olvos, 47.
ols, 39.
oia-e'pevai, 73.
oXe'ea-Oai, 72.
oXe'Opiov rjpap, 21.
oXot], 38.

’OXvpmaSes, 57.
opodpai, 39.
ovSe 8opov8e, 50.

It OO

ovop.ai, Jo.
do, 51.
oov, 64.

oTrirctfs, 43, 89 ; oirws, 29.
opav, opdo-0ai, 74.
Op€(TTCpOS, 60.
dpeo-4>i>v, 50.
opTiat, 71.

opvicriv aryumoio-iv, 14.

»r — O

Op(T€0, tO.

dp4>aviKov rfpap, 21.
opiope, 74.
opwpe'xaTai, 69.
ot, 41.

OTeOKTl, OT€V, 65.

tr ft c* rt

OTLVa, OTT€0, OO.

> \ >r n Q

ov -yap €Ti, *o.
odSe'v, 60.
od'Seos, 53.
ovpos, 40.

Odpaviwves, 57.
ovpos, 38.
ovs (o'as), 53.
ovra, 71, 77.

ovtcl^w, 23.

ovtos, 80.

d<j>e'XXeiev, 36, 44.
dtjnv, 93.
o'4>pa, 29.
ov|/€o-0€, 73.
ttchs, 39.

7ravr]pepioi, 80.
iravvvx>os, 80.

Trapa 8e, 78.

Trap’, -irapai, 79.
irapeiwv, 51.
irdpe'xTl, 93.

'irapcrT'qcTOV, 76.
irao-ais, 51.

IlaTpdKXeis, 56.
-iraTpocjjovrja, 55.
iraTpcov, 53.

-Trego's, 80.

Tmvdcov, 71.
irepirw, 23.

7rsm0T]Va), 67.

irtTriOoipriv, 66.

TrepiSef-ios, 86.
irepi8wp€0ov, 69.
TT€0-€OVTai., 73.

XlgTCaio, 51.
irevOopat, 53.
TretfjiSriVeTai, 67.
IlT|Xeicjv, 59.
nriXeicovdSe, 50.
-ino-vpas, 61.

Tri^avo-Kw, 93.
IIXaTaiav, 56.
irXe'as, -rrXe'es, 60.
TrXevpa, 56.

Tro8dpKT]S, 12, 34 f.
7roSouv, 52.

TTO0T]'p€Vai, 72.

7roXeas, 57.

TroXe'tcrtri, 57.
iroXL-qTas, 55.

'iro'XiosrlO; TToXts ktA.,54.
iroXXaKi, 45.

100

iroXXo's, 57.
ttoXvXXkttov, 92.
irovTOiropovo~r]S, 39.
irovTo'<j>i, 49.
irocrcri, 37, 43.
itoti, 79.
irovXv's, 38, 57.
irpeVPa, 57.

TrpT]vrjs> 80.
IIpiaplSTjs, 89.
irptv, 89.

irpof3XwcrK€lV, 44.
irpo0vplT]o-i, 87.
irpoaavS-qTTjv, 71.
‘irpotrioTrara, 53.
irpoTi, 79.

Trpov<J>aive, 40.
Trpovxovxo, 40.
irpocJ)pao'<ra, 57.
Trpot})pajv, 80.
‘irpwTurros, 60.
irroXepl£op€V, 73.
irro'Xepos, 44.

TTToXlS, 44.
iruXe'wv, 51.
irwXe'ai, 72.
f>d, 29.

paa-traTe, 69.
pepvirwpe'va, 67.
piTTTCUrKC, 78.

(raw, 71.

ere dev, 50 ; o-eto, 62 f.
Seiprjvouv, 52.
EKapavSpos, 91.
Xpiv0ev, 58.
trireto, 71.

<nreiovs, 37.
cnre'crcri, 52.
trirr]€<rcri, 54.
O’TT]0€O”cjHV> 50.
trvv€X€Ps, 93.

(TVOS KOTTpOV, 14.
cr4>e , 62.
o-wpa, 23.

GREEK INDEX.
t*> 41.

TaXaiovlSao, 59.
TaXavpivov, 48.
xdXXa, 40.

Tax,€«s, 81.
re', 29.

T€'0va0i, 68.
X€0VT]WXOS, 68.

TeXapwviaSrjs, 59.
TeXap.wvi.os, 59.

xeoio, 62.
xeotoa, 65.
xepmKe'pavvos, 45.
xe'xXa0i, 68.
xexpa4>axo, 69.

X6XVKOVXO, 66.

rev, 65.

T€X.VT]e'vTWS, 81.

T€X.VT]{rcrai, 39.

Te'wv, 65.

Ti.0et, xiOrjpevos, 75.
Ti0rjp.i, 23.

Tip.rjs, 39.

Tioreiav, 68.
xo£, xal, k tA., 64.
xoicrSecriv, 64.
ToicrSeo-criv, 64.
xouri 8’ dve'crTT], 27.
xovveKa, 40.
xpaire Co pev, 45, 75.
xpcujrev, 70.
xp£XXio-xos, 92.
Tpix0a, 44.

TpwiaSwv, 58.

TvSrj, 39.

XVVT], 62.

vf3(3dXXeiv, 42.
vies ’A\aiwv, 12.
vlo's, vlos, kt A., 55.
vpelwv, 62.
vpp.es, ktA., 63.
vpo's ktA., 62 f.
viral, 79.
virai0a, 35, 50.

viretp, 79.
virepSe'a, 53.
'YirepiovlSao, 59.
virepoirXiTjcTL, 87.
virvwovxas, 72.
<|)dav0ev, 70, 75.
4>aavxaxos, 60.
4>dvecrK€, 78.

(j>ao, 76.

<j>apos, 23, 88.
cjjevyo'vTwv, 68.
cjnjpcrlv, 36.

4>0r)criv, 67.

4>0tpr|V, 4>0ito, 70.

49.

tjnXevvTas, 39.
(JnXrjpevai, 72.
cJ)Xl\J/€Tai, 36.

4>o'(3os, 23.

<J>opr]vai, 72.

<J>o'ws, 37.

4>v-ya8e, 50.

<j>v£a, 23.

<j>vXaKov's, 55.
XaXKox.iTwvwv, 12.
XapaievvaSes, 38.

X€ip, 38.

Xt] pels, 40.

X0t£o's, 79.

Xp«w, 40.

Xprj ktA., 28.
Xpvo-rpSa, 58.
w aptyvwxe, 40.
wSvcrao, 69.

W0€O"K€, 78.

WKICTTOS, 59.
wKvpo'w, 43.
wpio-Tos, 40.
wpope, 74 ; wpo’e, 73.
ws (postpositive), 44.
ws, 64.

ws S’ avrws, 64.
wo"Te with inf., 26.
WVTOS, 40.

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

[The references are to pages.]

Adjectives, 56 f.

Adjective in apposition with noun, 9.
Adverbs, 79 f.

Accent of words, different from At¬
tic, 23.

Aeolic elements in Homeric dialect,
35 f.

Alphabet, transfer from the earlier, 37.
Alliteration, 15.

Amphimacer, 87.

Anastrophe, 79.

Anomalous forms, 55 f.

Apocope, 42 f.

Arnold, Matthew, 1, 7.

• Article, 63 f.

Asyndeton, 18 f.

Attic reduplication, 66.

Attic second declension, 52.

Augment, 65 f.

Bentley, 47.

Bryant, 6.

Bucolic diaeresis, 85.

Caesural pauses, 83 ff.

Cases retain original force, 25.
Changes in meaning and use of words,
22 f.

Change of subject, 7 f.

Chapman, 2 f.

Chiasmus, 19.

Comparisons, 16 ff.

Comparison of adjectives, 59 f.
Consonants, 43 ff.

Contraction, 39.

Contract verbs, 70 ff.

Convenience of verse, 34, 86 f.
Conventional epithets, 11 ff.
Copulative for disjunctive conjunc¬
tions, 32.

Correlative constructions, 31 f.
Cowper, 4 f.

Crasis, 40.

Dactyls, 81 f.

Dative of interest, 26 f.

Dative with ini, vno, avv, or a fia, 27 f.
Demonstrative pronouns, 63 f.

Derby, Lord, 5 f.

Digamma, 45 ff.

Diphthongs shortened, 93 f.

Direct discourse, 7 f.

Elision, 41 f.

Epanalepsis, 20.

Epexegesis, 13 f.

in LTT\OK'fl , 20.

Epithets, 11 ff., 34 f.

Errors in transmission of text of
poems, 36 f.

Eeminine caesura, 84.

First aorist active and middle, 72 f.
First declension, 50 f.

Future active and middle, 72 f„
Future passive, 75.

Genitive absolute, 26.

Genitive in -oo, 51.

Hepthemimeral caesura, 84.
Hexameter verse, 81 ff.

Hiatus, 40 f.

Hysteron proteron, 22.

Indefinite pronoun, 65.

Infinitive with acc., 26.

Infinitive with ware, 26.

Intensive pronoun, 63.

Interrogative particles, 29.
Interrogative pronouns, 65.

Ionic dialect, 35.

Iterative forms, 77 f.

Jod, 44.

102

INDEX OF SUBJECTS.

Litotes, 20 f.

Long vowels shortened, 93 f.
Masculine caesura, 84.

Meaning of words changed, 22 f.
Metathesis, 45.

Middle voice, 74.

-jut, verbs in, 75 f.

Mute and liquid make position, 90.
Newman, F. W., 5.
v movable, 45.

Numerals, 60 f.

Old and new forms side by side, 34.
Onomatopoeia, 15.

Optative mode, 24 f., 70.

Order of words, 9 ff.

Parasitic v, 44.

Parataxis, 30 f.

J *

Parechesis, 15.

Participial construction deserted, 8.
Participle has principal thought, 33.
Particles, 28 f.

Passive voice, 75.

Patronymics, 57 ff.

Penthemimeral caesura, 84.

Perfect, 73 f.

Periphrasis, 21.

Personal pronouns, 62 f.

Pope, 3 f.

Possessive Pronouns, 62 f.
Prepositions, 25, 78 f.

Principal clauses, 8.

Pronouns, 62 ff.

Quantity, 86 ff.

Reduplication, 66.

Relative pronoun, 64.

Relative not the first word in its
clause, 10.

Rough breathing, 45.

Second aorist without variable vowel,
77.

Second declension, 51.

Short mode-vowel in subjunctive, 70,
75, 76.

Single consonant makes position, 91 f.
c movable, 45.

Special case-endiiigs, 49 f.

Spondaic verses, 83.

Spondees, 81.

Stereotyped expressions, 14.
Subjunctive mode, 24, 70.

Synizesis, 39 f.

Synonymous expressions, 13.
Tennyson, 6.

Third declension, 52 ff.

Variations of natural quantity, 88.
Vau, 45 ff.

Verb-endings, 67 ff.

Verbal adjectives, 28.

Vocalization of p, 48 f.

Vowels and diphthongs, 37 f.

Words lacking in Homeric vocabu¬
lary, 23.

Zeugma, 21 f.

Yod, 44.

PASSAGES ILLUSTRATED OR REFERRED TO

A 1. .9, 13,40, 84

A 137. . .

.24, 30

A 565 .

...33

r 5i . . . .

. 19

2 .

.41, 65

160, 177.... 13

569 .

...41

54 f . . .

..14, 24

4 f . ...

..65, 47

193 f. .

. 30

B 4 .

...32

80 ... .

. 9

6 .

. 90

200 .. .

. 27

79 .

...13

103 f . .

. 19

8 .

. 14

201. .13, 14, 91

87 .

...89

105 . . .

. 21

10 ... .

. 10

218...

....30

113 ff. . .

...33

111...

. 64

12 ff. .

..8, 33

220 f. .

. 21

131 .

. . . 15

119 . . .

. 11

12, 15.

. 11

237 ff.

. 10

138 .

...63

152 .. .

. 40

17....

. 93

251 .. .

. 22

144 f . . . .

. . .14

155 .. .

18 ....

. ... 40

254 ff.

. 18

190 .

...93

179...

. 19

19 f. . .

. . 15, 94

256 .. .

. 14

261 ff. . .

...10

185 .. .

. 85

21 ... .

. 47

259 .. .

....31

299 .

...18

220 .. .

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